2.2. The analysis of using of lexical transformations in the novel
Having examined the first chapter of this book, for example the practical
part I have used only five types of lexical transformations occurring to me that I
mentioned earlier. he analysis of the text has revealed that the writer has certain
specific objectives in putting particular information at the topic position of the
sentence. He makes the reader realize the significance of certain pieces of
information. The writer has employed this technique to establish the discourse
of difference between Pashtuns and Hazaras. Following are notable examples
from the text of the novel under analysis: 1) “Hey, you!” he said. “I know you.” 2)
“You! The Hazara! Look at me when I‘m talking to you!” 3) Like Ali, she was a
Shi‘a Muslim and an ethnic Hazara. 4) ―An entire chapter dedicated to
Hassan’s people! In it, I read that my people, the Pashtuns, had persecuted
and oppressed the Hazaras.‖ 5) Amir thought, "He was just a Hazara, wasn't he?"
6) ―He wrinkled his nose when he said the word Shi’a, like it was some kind of
disease. The writer has used the device of presupposition at the sentence level by
giving a reference to a book of history at the thematic level of the sentence in the
novel, The Kite Runner. By using the device of presupposition, the writer floats
the ideas in such a way as to be accepted without questioning. For this purpose,
he gives a reference of the history book of Khorami- an Iranian writer. Following
are some of the examples from the text of the novel under analysis: 1) ―The
book said that my people had killed the Hazaras, driven them from their lands,
burned their homes, and sold their women. 2) ―The book said part of the reason
Pashtuns had oppressed the Hazaras was that Pashtuns were Sunni Muslims, while
Hazaras were Shi’a. 3) ―It also said some things I did know, like that people
called Hazaras mice-eating, flat-nosed, load-carrying donkeys. Words Level In the
present research, Critical discourse analysis was also applied at the level of
individual words. Certain words have been pointed out that carry certain
connotations. This type of analysis was conducted to reveal the text‘s level of
15
5
formality or informality, and its degree of technicality, etc. The quantitative
methodology of Corpus linguistics was used informality, and its degree of
technicality, etc. The quantitative methodology of Corpus linguistics was used as a
supplement to determine the frequencies of certain lexical items. It has been found
that the writer has used the linguistic device of Metaphors, Register and First
person narrative very effectively in his novel, The Kite Runner. He uses this
technique to highlight the issue of ethnicity. The Kite Runner was written by
Khaled Hosseini, an Afghan living in America. It is a novel about a heartbreaking
story in Kabul, the capital city of Afghanistan. A 12-year-old boy named Amir was
determined to win the competition and run for the last kite successfully, in order to
win the approval of his father, one of the richest and most respected merchants in
Kabul. His loyal friend Hassan, his half-brother, the son of his father’s servant, and
the best kite runner that Amir had ever seen, promised to help him. Hassan always
helped Amir out of trouble. For him, a thousand times over. However, Hassan was
raped by Assef on the way to catch the kite for Amir, Amir hided and kept silent.
Amir felt grievous and guilty for his cowardice and he could not confront Hassan,
using something contemptible to let Hassan and his father leave his home. Not
long, a war broke out in Afghanistan, Amir and his father had to escape to
America. He couldn’t forgive what he had done to Hassan before. Once in a while,
he got the truth that Hassan was the son of his father and the wife of Ali from his
teacher, he returned his hometown, which was badly destroyed by the war. While,
Hassan, his brother and he and his wife died, left their son Sohrab alone. Rahim
requested him to rescue Sohrab. This time he fought for Sohrab and finally got
Sohrab back and took him to America. Chinese Professor Nie Zhenzhao pointed
out, “To some extent, literature was originally created solely for ethical and moral
purposes. It provides moral examples for human beings to understand society and
life from an ethical perspective, moral guidance for material and spiritual life of
human beings, and moral experience for human self-improvement.” The Kite
Runner is a great work full of moral enlightenment, in which the experience of the
5
The Kite Runner. Bloomsbury Publishing PLC.
16
Afghan people described can give readers a strong resonance. The novel
successfully reproduced an unique ethical picture of the the Afghanistan as well as
the ordinary Afghans hard life situation for more than 30 years to the readers, and
revealed those that lived at the bottom of society in Afghanistan suffering from the
dual oppression of race and religion. Critics have explored the author’s questioning
of Afghanistan’s traditional notions of national and religious hierarchy from the
perspectives of theme research, prototype criticism and symbolism, and reflected
on the Afghan war and Taliban rule. Nie also pointed out that, to analyse the
ethical fate of Hassan’s in literature ethics criticism method, it must be “returning
to the scene of the history of ethics, standing at the time of the ethical stance on
interpretation and interpretation of literary works, analysis works leading to social
events and the factors affecting the ethical fate of the characters, with the ethical
point of view and give explanations of events, characters, literature, insist on a
realistic moral values described in the literature of moral phenomenon make value
judgment.” This paper analyzes the influence of family ethics, national ethics and
religious ethics on the tragic fate of Hassan from the perspective of three-
dimensional ethics. Through this novel, the author not only questions and criticizes
the traditional and rigid ethical concepts, but also reveals his own humanitarian
ethics. The Kite Runner is a buildings roman, as it focuses on the growth and
development of the narrator, Amir, from childhood to adulthood. Amir’s story
involves an exploration of ideas of belonging, family, and redemption. Afghan
history is interwoven throughout the narrative, from the overthrow of the
monarchy to the communist takeover, the Soviet occupation, and the rise of the
Taliban, to 9/11 and the subsequent US invasion. Amir’s sense of identity is
shaken by his regrets, the revelations about his family, and his return to a
homeland he no longer recognizes. Ultimately, he is able to redefine himself by
6
confronting the past. The Kite Runner is a buildings roman, as it focuses on the
6
Гарбовский Н.К. Теория перевода. – М.: Издательство Московского
университета, 2004.
17
growth and development of the narrator, Amir, from childhood to adulthood.
Amir’s story involves an exploration of ideas of belonging, family, and
redemption. Afghan history is interwoven throughout the narrative, from the
overthrow of the monarchy to the communist takeover, the Soviet occupation, and
the rise of the Taliban, to 9/11 and the subsequent US invasion. Amir’s sense of
identity is shaken by his regrets, the revelations about his family, and his return to
a homeland he no longer recognizes. Ultimately, he is able to redefine himself by
confronting the past. The Kite Runner is a buildings roman, as it follows the
narrator, Amir, from boyhood to middle age, focusing on his psychological and
moral growth as he seeks redemption for his past actions. Author Khaled Hosseini
combines considerations of history and origin, identity, and family in order to
interrogate questions of belonging and selfhood. The novel takes place between
1975 and 2002, interweaving the social and political narrative, as devastation is
wrought upon Afghanistan, with Amir’s personal narrative. At the beginning of the
novel, Afghanistan is ruled by King Zahir, and its capital of Kabul exists in relative
peace. Amir’s father, Baba, prospers, and Amir and his playmate, Hassan, spend
their days climbing poplar trees in an idyllic neighborhood of Kabul. 1973 signals
the disruption of peace, as guns “[light] the sky with silver,” and Afghanistan
becomes a Republican state. In the years that follow, the fighting between various
factions and the eventual invasion by the Soviet army results in “the death of
Afghanistan” as Amir knew it. As Amir puts it, “There are a lot of children in
Afghanistan, but little childhood.” For children such as Sohrab, this is true. For
Amir, his childhood memories up to the winter of 1975 are mostly carefree, but
like his father, he becomes “split between two halves” as he tries to escape his past
and effectively abandons the part of his identity that resided in Afghanistan.
Amir’s return to Afghanistan as an adult threatens to remove the residual parts of
his identity that still think of Afghanistan as home. With the invasion of the
Taliban, not only have the customs changed to the extent that one risks death for
looking the Taliban in the eye, but the very landscape of Amir’s childhood has
18
become unrecognizable. Where once there were lines of poplar trees, there are now
“puffy and blue” corpses. As Amir takes in the sights of the broken and dilapidated
city, the horrifying images of the present are interspersed with flashbacks to his
childhood. Amir recalls a memory of discovering a turtle with Hassan and
pretending to be “daredevil explorers” as apple and cherry trees loomed like
“skyscrapers.” Through recourse to his childhood imagination, he can block out
some of the trauma of the present while grasping onto the vestiges of the
Afghanistan of his childhood. Yet when Amir discovers that even his father’s
orphanage has been destroyed and that the orphanages of Afghanistan now sell
children into slavery to survive, it becomes clear that the identity that Amir
associated with Afghanistan is now one that exists only in his memory. The idea of
a homeland remains central to the novel, and no character feels this more keenly
than Baba. When Amir and Baba are forced to flee Afghanistan for the United
States, Baba feels an intense rupture and loss. Although he had loved “the idea” of
America, its fast-paced atmosphere and mistrustful attitude toward immigrants is a
thousand miles away from the traditional customs of kinship and brotherhood that
Baba is used to. Amir, in contrast, sees the move as an opportunity to forget the
past and rebuild his life. For him, America represents liberty, as he can receive an
education and begin to establish himself as a successful author. The fact that this
new world is completely. This concretizing transformation would be impossible
without knowledge of the context of the novel. The translator implied the real
meaning of the phrase doing nothing which was relevant for the context and
narration. Sometimes this type of transformation is rather useful because it makes
some vague details clear in the text itself and allows the reader to follow the idea
better. There is such a translation phenomenon when the translator is able to
improve the narration of the author by concretizing something without loss of the
original style of the author. Antonymic translation involves translating a phrase or
clause containing a negation using a phrase or clause that does not contain a
negation or vice versa. Nevertheless, antonymic translation is more related with
stylistic devices of translation because it is personal decision of the translator to
19
imply this technique concerning some speech patterns in the source text. The
necessity for this transformation arises due to several reasons: 1) peculiarities of
the systems of source language and target language, 2) contextual requirements, 3)
traditional norms of target language.
7
This is the classic example of antonymic translation when the affirmative
phrase in the source language is translated into the target language with a negation
that is sometimes more typical of the stylistic norms of the target language or
according to the text. This transformation does not distort the author’s plan style of
writing and actually conveys the real meaning of the phrase “That is simple”.
Moreover, the phrase corresponds with stylistic norms of the target language. This
example shows how a sentence can be considered as a unit of translation.
Antonymic transformation concerns word combinations more often. This kind of
transformations is affected at the phrase or word combination level.
The mountain sloped gently where he lay…As we can see in the example,
antonymic translation again takes place and affirmative construction is translated
with a negation in the TARGET text. Sometimes the choice of such
transformations depends on personal views of the translator but actually it
corresponds with literal norms and purposes to express the idea better in terms of
literature and stylistics. The whole subordinate clause can be transformed with
antonymic translation that proves effectiveness of this method if a translator has
the purpose to keep author’s taciturn and laconic style of writing.
He knew how to blow any sort of bridge that you could name …In fact, here
we observe antonymic translation at the phrase level because the translator
transforms the meaning of the whole phrase. We pointed out earlier that translation
can be effected at several possible levels: word, word combination, phrase,
sentence and so on. Here we come across the phrase level. So, meaning and use of
7
Голуб И.Б. Стилистика русского языка. – М.: Издательство «Рольф»;
«Айрис-пресс», 1997.
20
Russian and English word-building suffixes diverge considerably. Every language
has rather productive suffixes, for example, the English suffix –er. “The suffix –er
is capable of forming a noun which means an agent of an action derived from
practically any word. That is why verbs are often used when nouns with –er are
translated into Russian”. Actually the following example shows how a translator
can apply meaning extension or sense development. It regards the word driver and
the way how it was translated. Meaning extension involves translating a cause by
its effect or vice a versa.
They had dismounted to ask paper soft he driver of a cart…The noun with –
er - driver was translated with the Russian finite verb ехал. Actually, the
morphological transformation took place. As for lexical transformations, they often
occur alongside with morphological ones because it requires change of the lingual
components which are closely related with a word that converts into other part of
speech. The word крестьянин in the TARGET text appears from the context and is
very appropriate there because it complements the entire picture where the novel
takes place. The translator has such a right to add some lexical units to make the
description more complete and clear in the target language. Thus, here the
translator applied concretization, addition, and morphological transformations.
Translation often practices when one part of speech is converted into other one. An
English verbal noun with –eris “frequently and regularly” converted into a Russian
finite verb. Sometimes a translation technique of addition is used to translate words
with –er according to stylistic norms. A translator often uses by his personal view.
While literary translation, one should consider not only word-forming peculiarities
but also “rich stylistic resource of the Russian language in comparison with the
English language”. This factor should be taken into account when emotional and
expressive constructions typical of literary texts are translated. So, a great number
of various Russian diminutive, affectionate, pejorative suffixes allow a translator to
convey the speaker’s attitude to the subject. Loss-of-meaning compensation
involves adding to or reinforcing a target text in one place to compensate for
21
something that hasn’t been translated in a different place in the source text.
Sometimes it can concern the reproduction of certain parallel lexical and
syntactical model as it is observed in the examples below.
That is your right and how it should be done…Translation is effected at the
sentence level and the translator employed some possible techniques for that. In
fact, we have no source construction reproduced in the target sentence but we have
rather an idiomatic Russian construction with a sort of parallelism. This has
expressive coloring and renders the mood which was conferred to the phrase by the
speaker. We classified this example as a lexical transformation because as we can
see the translator used absolutely different set of lingual units as compared with the
source sentence. But it is sure to have relation with syntactic transformations as
well because the structure is changed completely and has nothing in common with
the original structure. The considerable part of translator’s work is dedicated to
rendering various colloquial phrases. Such situations usually occur while
translating some dialogues when characters interchange utterances of sub neutral
stylistic level and the translator must confer the same coloring to the TARGET
text.
–Not even in a joke…Colloquial phrases are one of the most difficult matters
to be translated because the TARGET phrase must correspond with the source one
in expressiveness, it must be of lower style. The key word for translation of this
particular phrase became the word “joke”. The translator managed to find the
equivalent phrase in Russian and the translated phrase sounds as idiomatic as the
original one in English. Translation is at sentence level because the syntactical
structure and set of lingual units were changed.
A translator can employ paraphrasing to reach the equivalent energy of the
phrase or render the atmosphere and the mood which is relevant to the situation
described.
22
I understand that…The translation was effected at the sentence level and the
sentence with a finite verb was translated with an adverb in Russian that is an
impersonal sentence.
Look at the seal. – he said…Imperative Mood and an exclamatory sentence
were transformed into Indicative and an interrogative sentence though a rhetorical
one. Such transformations occur when translating colloquial sentences and
immediate utterances. Actually, the present example can be considered as a case of
concretization because the translator made the idea of exclamation more exact and
showed that the speaker had no idea of the seal but didn’t ask whose it was, or
some other reasons.
It is possible to point out the following concluding the subject of lexical
transformations: Word-building suffixes and prefixes are different in various
languages in terms of their productivity and their additional meanings. The most
productive English suffix –er is usually translated into Russian as a finite verb
corresponding with the meaning of the verb form which the noun with –er was
derived. Transformation of the noun with –er provoked some syntactical
transformations as well. Though there are more affixed formations in English than
in Russian, Russian possesses more affixes of higher stylistic value than English
does. In this respect a translator has to use lexical means introducing modal words
and emotional lexis to reach adequate translation. Various parts of speech and
phraseology can be employed when English formations are translated in order to
make an adequate translation. It concerns some set expressions which are typical of
and natural for the target language. It is important to know the literal style of the
author because it limits the number of translation techniques and the translator
makes conveying closer to the original. In this particular case, the translator should
8
not have used grandiloquent lexis. An obligatory condition of an adequate
translation of a scientific text is the ability to analyze the grammatical structure of
5
Комиссаров В.Н. Современное переводоведение. Курс лекций. – М.:
Издательство ЭТС, 1999.
23
foreign sentences to ascertain translation difficulties and construct sentences while
translating according to the norms of a language and the genre of translation. Of
special importance for a translator of a scientific text is the knowledge of the
subject of translation, i.e. the ability of orientation oneself in that subject branch to
which a text intended for translation belongs in our case, it is literary etudes. While
translating a comprehension of the content of the sentences and semantic relations
between sentences, as well as the meanings of met textual elements, participating
in the organization of a text, are necessary. The largest complex of grammatical
problems of translation is naturally connected with understanding the syntactical
structure and the morphological composition of sentences as linguistic elements
and direct carriers of subject information. In order to avoid an inadequate, word-
for-word translation (grammatical “over-literal rendering”) it is necessary to apply
translating grammatical transformations. As a result a literal translation is adapted
to the standards of the language of translation and becomes adequate. Under
grammar transformation one envisages a change of the grammatical characteristics
of a word, word combination or a sentence in a translation. They differentiate a
few grammatical transformations: a transposition or permutation, a replacement or
substitution, addition, exclusion, complex transformation, generalization, integral
transformation etc. In examining this topic Lexical Transformations, I examine
many kinds of lexical transformations. As part of the course work in the practical
part, I will use only a few of them, which in my opinion are the most common in
the work of the translator. In the practical part in the consideration of this story, I
will use the omission, addition, specification, generalization, antonymic
translation. There were, only 5 lexical transformations. In the end I want to say that
while working on this book I will meet modern English, which is a "headache" for
translator using lexical transformations. The main reasons for using lexical
transformations of words or constructions cannot always be translated in such a
way that the part of speech and slot frame correspond exactly. Main translation
problems and comparative analysis. The method of comparison helps the translator
24
to solve the main problems which may appear in the process of translation. All
lexical problems are subdivided into 4 groups:
1) Problems connected with the semantic structure of a word.
2) Problems connected with special groups of words such as terms, neologisms,
modal words and phraseological units.
3) The use of words within word-groups, the combinability of words and
phraseological units.
4) Problems connected with the use of different translation methods for rendering
words, semantic groupings of words, phraseological units, word-groups. [Now we
look at thema in reasons for using lexical transformations in the story I will list all
the reasons that met in the analysis of the first chapter of this book:
1) One of the first and the main reason is differences in the structure of sentences
in Russian and English. As we all know, the proposals in the English language
have a certain procedure for drawing up and in the Russian language there is no
such order. Therefore, the translation appears lexical transformation. It's one of the
reasons. I note that the translation from English into Russian, sentence structure
often changes and this leads to the use of lexical transformations. By this point, I
want to include not only the structure of the proposal, but also the style of the
writings peculiar only to the original language. For example, in English, the stories
can be found in the description of two adjectives or verbs that are synonymous, and
it will be considered acceptable. In the Russian language, it is less common, which
leads to the use of transformation.
2) The second reason for which the translator has resorted to the use of
transformations are words which have no analogues in the Russian language, most
often such words are slang, dialect, or words which have only recently entered into
circulation English language. I mention this in the theoretical part the language
must be seen as a living thing that evolves.
25
3) The third reason is a group of words requires a specification, or one of the types
of lexical transformations. This group includes words such words, such as a: to be,
to go, to do; and so on, which have a large number of options for translation into
Russian.
4) I would like to highlight Slang, as a separate reason for using lexical
transformations. As mentioned earlier, I have taken the story was released in 2012
and has a modern painting events. It is, carried out, on young people and, therefore,
Slang occurs quite often. Slang in turn usually needs any transformation.
5) The final item. Since we consider the lexical transformation, as an example of a
literary work, is a literary text coloring, will be one of the reasons for the use of
lexical transformations. I want to say that the translator often resorted to
transformations based on their own feelings, how he feels the story, which he
expounds. Transformation used for the beauty of the writing, and in order not to
overload the text of the story. In the theoretical part of the course work, we have
considered almost all kinds of lexical transformations. In this practical part I will
use only 5 lexical transformations, such as the addition, omission, generalization,
concretization and antonymic translation. Upon completion of the analysis of
examples of the use of these types of lexical transformations in work “Fault in Our
Stars”, I will make use of the analysis of the amount of each of these types of
transformations, as well as touch on item 2.1 the main reasons for using lexical
transformations.
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |