Cyber Crime and Cyber Terrorism

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Balancing technological and human capabilities
User-centered approaches have been applied in research areas as wide as health-
care, product design, human-computer interaction and, more recently, security and 
counter-terrorism (
Saikayasit et al., 2012; Stedmon et al., 2013
). A common aim 
is the effective capture information from the user’s perspective so that system re-
quirements can then be designed to support what the user needs within specified 
contexts of use (
Wilson, 1995
). Requirements elicitation is characterized by exten-
sive communication activities between a wide range of people from different back-
grounds and knowledge areas, including end-users, stakeholders, project owners or 
champions, mediators (often the role of the human factors experts) and developers 
(
Coughlan and Macredie, 2002
). This is an interactive and participatory process that 
should allow users to express their own local knowledge and for designers to display 
their understanding, to ensure a common design base (
McNeese et al., 1995; Wilson, 
1995
). End-users are often experts in their specific work areas and possess deep 
levels of knowledge gained over time that is often difficult to communicate to others 
(
Blandford and Rugg, 2002; Friedrich and van der Pool, 2007
). Users often do not re-
alize what information is valuable to investigations and the development of solutions 
or the extent to which their knowledge and expertise might inform and influence the 
way they work (
Nuseibeh and Easterbrook, 2000
).
BALANCING TECHNOLOGICAL AND HUMAN CAPABILITIES
Within cyber-security it can be extremely difficult to capture user requirements. 
Bearing in mind the earlier cyber-security issues, it is often a challenge to identify 
and reach out to the users that are of key interest for any investigation. For example, 
where user trust has been breached (e.g., through a social networking site, or some 
form of phishing attack) users may feel embarrassed, guilty for paying funds to a 
bogus provider, and may not want to draw attention to themselves. In many ways 
this can be similar for larger corporations who may be targeted by fraudsters using 
identity theft tactics to pose as legitimate clients. Whilst safeguards are in place to 
support the user-interaction and enhance the user-experience, it is important to make 
sure these meet the expectations of the users for which they are intended.
In real world contexts, many aspects of security and threat identification in public 
spaces still rely upon the performance of frontline security personnel. However this 
responsibility often rests on the shoulder of workers who are low paid, poorly mo-
tivated and lack higher levels of education and training (
Hancock and Hart, 2002
). 
Real-world security solutions attempt to embody complex, user-centered, socio-
technical systems in which many different users interact at different organizational 
levels to deliver technology focused security capabilities.
From a macro-ergonomics perspective it is possible to explore how the systemic 
factors contribute to the success of cyber-security initiatives and where gaps may ex-
ist. This approach takes a holistic view of security, by establishing the socio- technical 
entities that influence systemic performance in terms of integrity, credibility, and 
performance (
Kleiner, 2006
). Within this perspective it is also important to consider 

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