evidence and such hunches pick out a di erent phenomenon from their apprehension of
the properties of their native language. As theorists’ intuitions of this sort do not
constitute part of the evidence, I would claim, against Devitt, that this leaves him with
corpuses and what we would say and understand upon presentation of linguistic
material as the main sources of evidence.
Moreover, an investigation of the ‘evidence of what we would say and understand’ upon
presentation of linguistic material is part of the linguistic intuitions evidence on the
orthodox model. As I argued in Section 3, gathering evidence about what speakers would
say or understand upon the presentation of linguistic material just is part of probing
their linguistic intuitions, via their comprehension of speech. This is what linguists
count as the linguistic intuitions of ordinary native speakers (see Sections 2 and 3).
Hence, again, contrary to Devitt's view, I would argue that these cannot be part of his
package for the main evidence for grammars if that package is to exclude what linguists
normally call the linguistic intuition or intuitive judgement of ordinary speakers.
Though Devitt would not class this source of evidence as the relevant linguistic
intuitions, and would deny they are the main topic of discussion, I have argued that he
is wrong on this point. Hence, I would suggest, against Devitt, that we are not here
dealing with a proposed combination of evidence but instead one main source of
evidence, since the considerations I’ve raised eliminate the two other sources from his
combination. Note that this is not the view that Devitt propounds but the view he is left
with, given my claims about the nature of linguistic intuition. So I’m going to focus on
the remaining part of the evidential package that Devitt suggests: namely, that the
corpus should be a central source of evidence for generative grammars.
If corpuses were the main evidence for grammars, this would re-orientate the
grammarian's attention away from speakers’ proclivities towards properties of external
outputs as the locus of grammatical inquiry. But there are major problems if one
endorses the view that the corpus can play the central role in grammatical theory that
has been played by the intuitions data.
This is because there are problems with narrowly focusing on performance events in
order to determine the structures of a speaker's language. For these reasons, speakers’
intuitive judgements have been considered crucial data for generative grammars.
Chomsky claims that ‘Linguistics is characterised by attention to certain kinds of
evidence … largely, the judgements of native speakers.’ (
Chomsky [1986]
, p. 36) He
09.03.2020
Linguistic Intuitions | The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | Oxford Academic
https://academic.oup.com/bjps/article/61/1/123/1451363
34/45
thinks we cannot determine the grammatical structure of languages on the basis of
gathering corpuses of performance events. Why does Chomsky think that the intuitions
of speakers are so central to investigating the grammars of languages?
Rather than drawing on corpus data in isolation from speakers’ intuitions, corpus data
are employed as part of a complementary package with speakers’ intuitions. Depending
on the hypothesis that one is investigating, one might, for example, want to examine a
corpus to see if a certain construction ever occurs. Or, in investigating language
acquisition, one might want evidence about what is available to children in their
primary linguistic data and what sorts of mistakes children make in acquiring their
target grammar. As Collins suggests:
For example, take the hypothesis that children don't make ‘errors’ of a certain
kind, say, ‘Children don't move auxiliary verbs from relative clauses in the attempt
to form interrogatives’ […] one can look at databases of child speech to test this.
One can also look at adult speech to see how common certain constructions are, or
whether children receive ‘negative data’. (
Collins [2006]
, p. 7)
But it is crucial to hypotheses about grammatical structure that one uses pieces of a
corpus in tandem with linguistic judgements, so as to work out how the expressions are
actually structured rather than simply whether certain strings occur or not. The mere
occurrence of an expression by itself doesn't tell you about its grammatical properties.
If one wants to know how it is structured that requires speakers making judgements
about its acceptability and interpretation. To this end, the grammarian's use of corpuses
involves him, or his native informant, making intuitive judgements too. Any model that
ultimately suggests a preponderant role for corpus data over speakers’ intuitions is
mistaken.
Devitt rightly points out that linguistics textbooks are full of sample strings described
as unacceptable, ambiguous, and so forth. These notions have a cognitive ring to them
but Devitt thinks they are best interpreted as marking properties of the written strings.
When linguists say that English-speakers have the intuition that a string is ambiguous,
Devitt thinks that this is being employed as evidence that the string has the property of
structural ambiguity. But as ordinary speakers are a fallible guide to grammatical
properties on Devitt's model, one might think that we should go straight to the corpus:
straight to the uttered and written strings, as the primary focus of grammatical inquiry,
and survey their properties rather than the properties of speakers’ intuitions. On the
orthodox view, there is much more to be said for the importance of linguistic intuitions.
22
09.03.2020
Linguistic Intuitions | The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | Oxford Academic
https://academic.oup.com/bjps/article/61/1/123/1451363
35/45
A corpus is a list of strings that have been uttered or written down. This description of
corpuses might be challenged on the grounds that it is unnecessarily austere. Perhaps
we should think of corpuses as imbued with all sorts of other interesting information
about grammatical structure. But it is di cult to see how linguists could so imbue
corpuses without drawing on evidence from the judgements of native speakers.
Grammatical structures involve special hierarchical dependencies amongst
constituents. We can't determine these special structures of speakers’ languages simply
by enumerating the strings that they produce, where the latter are at lists of words.
This is one reason why intuitive judgements are so important in gathering evidence for
generative grammars: because they can be used to determine the way that speakers
structure linguistic material. Consider (18) and (19) (the example is from
Collins [2006]
,
p. 8).
(18) Mary expected to leave by herself.
(19) Bill wondered who Mary expected to leave by herself.
The individual who is leaving can di er between the cases, as we can tell by the
acceptability of substituting herself for himself in (19) but not (18). But the fact that the
underlined material has di erent structural articulation in (18) and (19) is not obvious
from looking at the strings themselves without bringing such judgements about their
interpretation to bear. From looking at this mini-corpus, one might think that (18) is
simply embedded as the wh-complement in (19) and retains its structure. Examining a
corpus may not su ce for determining the di erence in the structures. The di erence
in structure between the two occurrences of the underlined material is usually explained
in terms of the di erence in the empty categories, where a copy of Mary is the subject
of the in nitival clause in (18), whilst a copy of who lls that position in (19). Linguists
determined this by investigating the di erent interpretations speakers give of these
strings.
And crucially, an uttered string that occurs in a corpus may have been an ‘error’, an
ungrammatical utterance. If the linguist were to count these strings as part of the
language then they would be counting in too much in constructing their grammar. So
linguists and their informants make judgements to discern amongst the produced
utterances. As Stanley observes: ‘Ordinary discourse often involves the use of complex
expressions which would be counted as ungrammatical even by the utterer's own
lights.’ (
Stanley [2000]
, p. 408). Corpora contain no explicit information about which
22
09.03.2020
Linguistic Intuitions | The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | Oxford Academic
https://academic.oup.com/bjps/article/61/1/123/1451363
36/45
are the ungrammatical utterances, and such information is crucial to developing
grammatical theories. The same is true in principle of written strings. We might have
reason to think that people are more careful about what they write than what they say.
Yet we don't want them to be too careful. There are lots of things that speakers easily
recognize as linguistic forms but wouldn't write down. Contractions of ‘want to’ to
‘wanna’ may be one such example. We would miss these forms if we relied solely on
written corpus data. So corpuses, in the absence of intuitive judgements, are not a
perspicuous guide to acceptability.
The point is that a corpus contains a great deal of what is, for the purposes of
investigating speakers’ grammars, ‘linguistic debris’. This includes ungrammatical but
interpretable utterances, false starts, mistakes, slips of the tongue, half-expressed
thoughts, un nished sentences, interruptions, and utterances a ected by de cits in
memory, attention and motivation. So corpuses taken in isolation don't provide a
perspicuous guide to the linguistic forms that speakers recognize or the construal that
they put upon them. Chomsky's suggestion is that to get some explanatory perspective
on such a record of performance events, requires not only the further evidence of
speakers making judgements but also a distinction between speakers’ grammatical
competence and the other factors that enter into these linguistic performances.
The utterances and inscriptions that make up corpora, are performance events:
interaction e ects amongst which only one factor is grammar. I have argued that
Devitt's claims about grammatical intuitions have a consequence, which he neither
desires nor anticipates. Whereas he thinks that a combination of corpuses, theoretical
intuitions, and what we would say and understand constitutes the evidence independent
of grammatical intuitions, I have argued that theoretical intuitions are not part of the
evidence and that evidence from what we would say and understand is the relevant
intuitions evidence. Contrary to the view Devitt espouses, these arguments remove
these sources of evidence from his proposed alternative combination. His alternative
will then run up against the following problem. Generative grammarians look to
separate out the di erent factors that contribute to performance events rather than
study the properties of the corpus as they result from the motley. That is the point of
the theoretical distinction between competence and performance: to try and determine
the grammar of the language that a speaker has actually acquired. The broad target is
the system responsible for our sensitivity to linguistic form. This system can be
explored by probing speakers’ intuitive responses to linguistic material as described in
my account of the orthodox model.
It would be a waste of time to wait until the strings of theoretical interest happened to
just turn up in written or spoken corpuses when the linguist can construct them
09.03.2020
Linguistic Intuitions | The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | Oxford Academic
https://academic.oup.com/bjps/article/61/1/123/1451363
37/45
himself or enlist the judgements of a native informant when the language is not his
own. The crucial cases to test a theory may not be in the corpus. Chomsky recognized
these problems with relying on corpuses in the absence of judgements early on, saying:
A corpus may contain examples of deviant or ungrammatical sentences, and any
rational linguist will recognise the problem and try to assign to observed examples
their proper status […] insofar as a corpus is used as a source of illustrative
examples, we rely on the same intuitive judgements to select examples as we do in
devising relevant examples with the aid of an informant or ourselves. (
Chomsky
[1965]
, pp. 198–9)
Further, an uttered or written string, like ‘Flying planes can be dangerous’, that turns
up in a corpus, may instantiate more than one grammatical structure of a language.
Sentences are structured objects but ‘do not wear their structures on their sleeves, so it
can easily happen that distinct structures sound the same.’ (
Fiengo [2003]
, p. 255). In
such cases, the linguist limited to inspecting corpuses may miss out on structures that
are part of the language.
5 Conclusions
To summarize the major problems with Devitt's model of linguistic intuition: (i) It is
unable to accommodate the pre-doxastic nature of linguistic intuition (Section 4.2); (ii)
Such folk theory-laden opinions would not be a orded an evidential role in a science
(Section 4.3); (iii) In practice, linguists do not target speakers’ re ective judgements
(Section 4.4); (iv) The model has the (perhaps unnoticed) consequence that a central
evidential role should be a orded to corpus data, which it cannot bear. Corpus data
works as a complementary package with intuitive judgements (Section 4.5).
In contrast, if a major source of evidence for generative grammars is native speakers’
pre-doxastic linguistic intuition, then a major source of evidence bears on the
grammars that speakers have internalized in a system of grammatical competence. The
orthodox model of linguistic intuitions and the evidential role they play looks in good
shape.
I am very grateful to two anonymous referees for this journal who helped me make
signi cant improvements to an earlier version of the paper. My special thanks go to
John Collins, Guy Longworth, and Simon Riches for extensive discussion, and to Barry
Smith for drawing my attention to many important examples of speakers’ intuitive
09.03.2020
Linguistic Intuitions | The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | Oxford Academic
https://academic.oup.com/bjps/article/61/1/123/1451363
38/45
sense of linguistic structure. My thanks also go to Richard Breheny, Craig French, Mark
Kalderon, Will McNeill, Gabe Segal, Lee Walters, and the audience at the London
Philosophy of Linguistics Seminar Series.
References
Adger D.. , Core Syntax: A Minimalist Approach, 2003OxfordOxford University Press
Google Scholar
Boeckx C.. , Linguistic Minimalism: Origins, Concepts, Methods and Aims, 2006OxfordOxford
University Press
Google Scholar
Chomsky N.. , Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, 1965Cambridge, MAMIT Press
Google Scholar
Chomsky N.. , Language and Mind, 1972New YorkHarcourt Brace Janovich
Google Scholar
Chomsky N.. , Lectures on Government and Binding, 1981DordrechtForis
Google Scholar
Chomsky N.. , Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin and Use, 1986New YorkPraeger
Google Scholar
Chomsky N.. ‘Replies to George and Brody’, Mind & Language, 1987, vol. 2 (pg. 178-97)
Google Scholar
Crossref
Chomsky N.. , The Minimalist Program, 1995Cambridge, MAMIT Press
Google Scholar
Chomsky N.. , On Nature and Language, 2002CambridgeCambridge University Press
Google Scholar
Collins J.. ‘Faculty Disputes’, Mind & Language, 2004, vol. 19 (pg. 503-33)
Google Scholar
Crossref
09.03.2020
Linguistic Intuitions | The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | Oxford Academic
https://academic.oup.com/bjps/article/61/1/123/1451363
39/45
Collins J.. ‘Between a Rock and a Hard Place: A Dialogue of on the Methodology and
Philosophy of Linguistics’, Croatian Journal of Philosophy, 2006, vol. 6 (pg. 471-505)
Collins J.. ‘Syntax, More or Less’, Mind, 2007, vol. 116 (pg. 805-50)
Google Scholar
Crossref
Cosmides L., Tooby J.. Buss D. M.. Neurocognitive Adaptations Designed for Social
Exchange’, Evolutionary Psychology Handbook, 2005New YorkWiley Press(pg. 584-627)
Google Scholar
Crain S., Thornton R.. , Investigations in Universal Grammar: A Guide to Experiments in the
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |