more people have been to France than I have (been to France?). Strings like (9),
particularly if read at su cient speed, can strike us over and over as having a full
structural interpretation even once careful inspection has revealed to us that they have
none, or we have come to believe as much on the basis of testimony. Our initial
linguistic judgements about the properties of (9), and our revision of those judgements
upon closer inspection, suggest as much.
An inspection of speakers’ intuitions about sentences such as (10) and (11) suggests
hypotheses about the grammatical information they possess, and a cleavage between
this information and speakers’ abilities to use the information in real-time. These
sentences can strike me, again and again, as lacking a full structure even once
prompting, extended attention or the testimony of others has issued in contrary beliefs:
(10) The man the cat the dog bit scratched died.
(11) The horse raced past the barn fell.
(11a) The horse raced past the barn.
Given some concentration, time, or prompting, speakers can come to recognize the
structure of (10) and judge that it is a sentence of their language, though they tend to
09.03.2020
Linguistic Intuitions | The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | Oxford Academic
https://academic.oup.com/bjps/article/61/1/123/1451363
19/45
nd it unacceptable at rst blush and would never use that structure. Once I recognize
that (10) is a double centre-embedding then I can pair o the embeddings and the
structure becomes apparent: the dog bit the cat that scratched the man that died. We can
see this if we start with the sentence the man died and then embed the clause the cat
scratched, which describes the man, to give us the man the cat scratched died. Then we
can embed the dog bit, which describes the cat, into the embedded clause yielding (10).
Running through that procedure with (10), I can keep its grammatical structure rmly
in view and judge its broad structural properties. But as soon as my attention lapses, I
lose that structure and (10) again strikes me as lacking it.
What is stopping me recognizing the sentence as part of my language is the lack of
attention and other resources required to process the embedding. In the case of (10),
and a vast range of other cases, it is not the language I know that rules out the structure
but the extraneous factors involved in using such grammatical information, in this
instance to repeatedly centre-embed. The explanation on o er is that when presented
with (10) something masks my standing competence with centre-embedded structure.
The distinction is suggested by a wide range of phenomena concerning what one can
immediately parse and what one can come to recognize with added performance
resources such as time, extended attention or bracketing. And linguists need both sorts
of principles—the recursive operation of a grammar and the rather di erent
organization of the performance systems—to explain these data.
‘Garden path’ sentences, like (11), strike many English-speakers as leaving the verb
‘fell’ dangling o the end of an otherwise good sentence (11a). The intuitive
consideration of (11) via which a speaker comes to structure it so that the dangling verb
is the main verb and raced past the barn is an embedded clause, may forever erase this
impression that fell is dangling. But it needn’t. The intuition can be robust and a
construal of (11) on which The horse raced past the barn is a sentence rather than a
determiner phrase can continue to suggest itself. Such structures ‘lead us up the garden
path’ and there is a residual impression of unacceptability. Though a parsing
explanation of this phenomenon is available on which speakers rst nd the tensed
phrase (11a) and so do not structure (11) such that fell is the main verb, the explanation
may in fact be partly grammatical. Compare (12) and (12a):
(12) The paint daubed on the wall stank.
(12a) The paint daubed on the wall.
*
09.03.2020
Linguistic Intuitions | The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | Oxford Academic
https://academic.oup.com/bjps/article/61/1/123/1451363
20/45
Sentence (12a) is not structurally ambiguous in the way that (11a) is. The paint can't
daub whereas the horse can race. The subject's grammatical proclivities can be probed
in this way by varying the presented material and seeing how the immediate intuitive
take varies. Such examples suggest that linguistic intuitions provide evidence for
investigating an encapsulated grammatical system and a distinction between a system
of grammatical competence and integrated performance systems.
As with visual experimentation, there can be priming e ects. If an ambiguous sentence
such as (13) is presented in a certain context, the hearer may take it in a unique way and
fail to see the ambiguity.
(13) Flying planes can be dangerous.
In such instances speakers may even reject the second proposed interpretation as
unnatural or contrived. Nevertheless, the speaker's ‘intuitive knowledge is clearly such
that both interpretations are assigned to the sentence by the grammar he has
internalized in some form.’ (
Chomsky [1965]
, p. 21). This knowledge can be drawn out,
sometimes in quite subtle ways to determine the actual form of the underlying
competence. We can see this by taking a less transparent ambiguity like (14):
(14) I had a book stolen.
Few hearers will notice the fact that this structure is three ways ambiguous. But the fact
that their internalized grammar provides three structural descriptions for the sentence
(corresponding to my having the book stolen from me or for me, or my stealing the
book myself) can be brought out by providing elaborations on (14) and gathering
intuitive judgements:
(14a) I had a book stolen from my car when I stupidly left the window open.
(14b) I had a book stolen from the library by a professional thief who I hired to do
the job.
(14c) I almost had a book stolen but they caught me leaving the library with it.
09.03.2020
Linguistic Intuitions | The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | Oxford Academic
https://academic.oup.com/bjps/article/61/1/123/1451363
21/45
In bringing out the three-way ambiguity of (14), we do not have to present the speaker
with any new information about his language; we only need to arrange linguistic
material in such a way that the structures his grammatical competence a ords him
become available. He then judges accordingly.
Linguists have clever ways of controlling for pragmatic e ects on linguistic
judgements. Consider ‘minimal pair’ experiments (see
Crain and Thornton [1998]
).
Speakers in these experiments are presented with strings that are hypothesized to di er
only in that one fails a certain grammatical constraint. The speakers are asked, simply,
which is a worse sentence of their language. Naturally, such controls do not eliminate
the intrusion of pragmatic factors, but rather aim to marginalize them. They re ect the
fact that the grammarian is not so much concerned with what might be conveyed or
implied by using a string in a particular communicative context. The ‘minimal pair’
experimental setting serves to strip away some of that context and leave the speaker to
make a report revealing of the structural materials that are immediately available to him
on the basis of the linguistic material alone.
There is evidence that the orthodox model I’ve outlined is precisely the model of
linguistic intuitions as psychological data, analogous to visual reports, which Chomsky
has in mind:
A grammar is a system of rules that generates an in nite class of ‘potential
percepts’ […] In short, we can begin by asking ‘what is perceived’ and move from
there to the study of perception. (
Chomsky [1972]
, p. 168)
The comparison has been noted by others. Slezak thinks that the familiar perceptual
phenomena involving Kanizsa illusory contours and the like, where visual percepts are
used to investigate perceptual constancies, are just like the intuitions reported on in
linguistic judgement. He remarks that:
The two interpretations of the Necker cube known intuitively to a ‘visual
virtuouso’ are closely analogous to the two meanings of an ambiguous sentence
known as the percepts of the native speaker. (
Slezak [unpublished]
, p. 34)
Longworth has developed the same theme, comparing visual reports with reports of
one's intuitive take on linguistic material. He compares ‘quasi-perceptual’ grammatical
appearances with the role of perceptual appearances in vision science. Longworth
09.03.2020
Linguistic Intuitions | The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | Oxford Academic
https://academic.oup.com/bjps/article/61/1/123/1451363
22/45
considers visual experiments where subjects are presented with various patterns of
printed marks and asked what they can make of those marks, whether some seem
closer together than others, and so on. The key point is that the reports that subjects
are requested to make are not reports on the properties that they believe the marks to
have, for:
One may very well know that the marks are equally well spaced on the page. What
one is asked for are reports about how the marks strike one, or how they seem to
one, where how they seem to one is typically impervious to how one believes them
to be. (
Longworth [unpublished]
, p. 11)
The intuitive reports are reports on one's experience. They serve as mental meter
readings.
3.4 Are linguistic intuitions the ‘voice of competence’?
Devitt's main bone of contention with this orthodox model is highlighted by the name
he gives it: the ‘voice of competence’ view. Devitt thinks that the orthodox model is
committed to speakers having a direct access to the grammatical properties and
principles that organize their grammatical competence. He calls this ‘Cartesian access’,
comparing it to the sort of direct access Descartes thought we had to the contents of our
own minds. Devitt then wonders why, if linguistic intuitions are the voice of our
grammatical competence, we cannot read o the properties of the grammars speakers
are competent in from their intuitions. As he puts it, ‘if competence really spoke to us
why would it not use its own language and why would it say so little?’ (
Devitt [2006a]
,
pp. 100–3). Devitt thinks that if the source of linguistic intuition were our grammatical
competence then we should have intuitions that give articulation to the very properties
that characterize our competence. But our intuitions do not seem to give articulation to
those grammatical properties that are only revealed by the theoretical inquiry into
grammar.
Devitt is correct that we do not have the kind of direct awareness of the underlying
grammatical properties licensed by our competence system that he thinks the orthodox
model appeals to. Fiengo's attitude to the idea that we have such direct awareness
seems to me to be representative:
[I]t goes without saying that we have no such awareness. If one is in any doubt, all
one need do is re ect on the fact that syntactic proposals for even the simplest
09.03.2020
Linguistic Intuitions | The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | Oxford Academic
https://academic.oup.com/bjps/article/61/1/123/1451363
23/45
sentences are often in debate [For if we had such awareness] much that is debated
in Linguistics could be settled by appeal to the intuitions of speakers. We could ask
them what the structures of sentences should be, and they could tell us. (
Fiengo
[2003]
, p. 258)
But there is a way to answer Devitt's question about why linguistic intuitions do not
‘use their own voice’ and why they ‘say so little’ that is suggested by the orthodox
model. Grammatical competence does not ‘use its own voice’ insofar as the properties
of the sub-personal competence system are not available to mere personal-level
re ection. We have to make a theoretical inference from a speaker's judgements of
acceptability and interpretability to the structure of the underlying competence and its
place within wider performance systems. The competence ‘says so little’ because
grammatical competence is only one factor involved in linguistic judgement that
engages systems of linguistic performance and more besides. Grammatical competence
is not all that speakers bring to bear on presented strings. This has always been
Chomsky's view:
The unacceptable grammatical sentences often cannot be used, for reasons having
to do not with grammar, but rather with memory limitations, intonational and
stylistic factors, ‘iconic’ elements of discourse (for example, a tendency to place
logical subject and object early rather than late) and so on […] we cannot formulate
particular rules of grammar in such a way as to exclude them. (
Chomsky [1965]
, p.
11)
We don't know how conscious judgements are derived, or the mechanics of the role the
linguistic systems play in issuing in these judgements. Linguists infer that a structured
grammatical competence system shapes these intuitions, but are well aware that
linguistic intuitions are not an unproblematic re ection of the underlying competence.
In that sense, Devitt is absolutely correct to argue that intuitions are not the ‘voice of
competence’. But then he is wrong to claim that this is a commitment of the orthodox
model. If grammarians do routinely think that linguistic intuitions are the ‘voice of
competence’, then it is apparent that they must think the voice is a very mu ed one.
The relation between the intuitive judgements and the structure of competence is not
transparent; it is a highly theoretical matter to determine what it is. As Fodor notes, in
o ering their intuitive takes on strings, subjects have access only to the upshot of their
linguistic systems including the grammatical system and the performance systems. So
15
09.03.2020
Linguistic Intuitions | The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | Oxford Academic
https://academic.oup.com/bjps/article/61/1/123/1451363
24/45
their intuitive judgements will not give voice to the internal organization of those
systems. The internal organization of the competence and performance systems, the
yields of the systems taken individually and their manner of interaction will all be
‘completely opaque’ to speakers as they respond to linguistic material (
Fodor [1983]
, p.
60). So there is no reason, on the orthodox model, to expect a speaker's judgements to
give ‘voice’ to their competence in the way Devitt suggests. The intuitive judgements
target the very broad properties of the acceptability and possible meanings of particular
pieces of linguistic material, so do not ‘say’ anything about the deeper, general, and
highly intricate properties of the competence system involved in their aetiology. We
may conclude, as Fiengo suggests, that the ne-grained grammatical properties are not
accessible to conscious intuition, whilst keeping distinct ‘intuitions, which are
conscious states, and those processes of which we are unconscious that perhaps
underlie our intuitions.’ (
Fiengo [2003]
, p. 257).
Devitt cites a number of passages from linguists and philosophers that he claims
support the attribution of a ‘voice of competence’ view (
Devitt [2006a]
, pp. 96–7).
There are two things I think worth noting about the textual evidence Devitt adduces.
The rst is that what scientists say about the nature of their investigation and the
actual nature of their investigation might come apart. Perhaps some linguists do
mistakenly attribute the evidential signi cance of the linguistic intuitions they examine
to their being the ‘voice of competence’. The second is that it is unclear that any of the
textual evidence Devitt cites actually supports the attribution. Space permits me to
consider only an illustrative example. Devitt cites Chomsky's claim that in some cases
‘conscious knowledge … follows by computations similar to straight deduction’ from
the principle that organize the competence (
Chomsky [1986]
, p. 270). Devitt claims that
this is su cient to attribute to Chomsky the view that linguistic intuitions give voice to
the underlying facts about the grammars speakers are competent in. But it is not. In the
passage in question, Chomsky is trying to answer Dummett's worry about how
unconscious knowledge issues in conscious knowledge. Chomsky argues that aspects of
our conscious knowledge of language, such as our knowledge that ‘John’ needn't mean
‘him’ in ‘John shaved him’, can be deduced from our unconscious knowledge of binding
theory. These particularized pieces of conscious knowledge are a consequence of the
principles of UG. But none of this, Chomsky claims, neither the UG possessed nor the
way its consequences are computed, is accessible to the speaker. So it is unclear why
Chomsky would think that it might be voiced in their intuitions. At no point does he
claim that this conscious knowledge gives voice to grammatical information or the
principles of the grammatical competence system.
More generally, the breadth of evidence that grammarians appeal to (indicated in
09.03.2020
Linguistic Intuitions | The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | Oxford Academic
https://academic.oup.com/bjps/article/61/1/123/1451363
25/45
Section 2.3) might itself lead one to doubt the attribution of the ‘voice of competence’
view. If speakers’ linguistic intuitions voiced their competence then why would
grammarians be so keen to unearth a range of other evidence in theorizing about the
competence system? Moreover, the comparison with the case of visual psychology
suggests that there is nothing peculiar going on in the linguistics case that merits the
ascription of the ‘voice of competence’ view. Subjects of visual experiment do not give
voice to the content and organization of their visual system. We could equally well
appeal to the other examples of psychologists investigating subjects’ intuitive
responses, cited above, to show that nothing in the employment of intuitions data is
suggestive of special access to the properties of an underlying cognitive system.
3.5 Are linguistic intuitions and visual reports disanalogous?
Devitt claims that ‘Perceptual judgements are not good analogues of linguistic
intuitions.’ (
Devitt [2006a]
, p. 112). Devitt argues that there is an important disanalogy
between linguistic intuitions and the perceptual reports drawn upon in vision science.
He thinks that what the visual module delivers to the central processor is the
impression on which a judgement about what is seen can be formed whilst what is
delivered to the central processor by the linguistic systems is an impression of what is
said. The important di erence, according to Devitt, is that whereas judgements about
what is seen are the ones of interest to the vision scientist, judgements of what is said
are not, at least on his model, the topic of discussion when considering grammatical
intuitions. The grammarian, Devitt claims, is interested in the grammatical properties
of expressions and to this end is interested in speaker's intuitions about grammatical
properties. So, Devitt denies that the relevant linguistic intuitions are derived in a way
analogous to the way perceptual judgements are derived from the outputs of the visual
module. Such intuitions about what is said are not the topic of discussion on his view.
This argument against the orthodox model is unconvincing for two reasons. First, and
fundamentally, it is unclear why the only intuitive materials made available to
judgement by the linguistic systems are intuitions about what is said rather than
intuitions about the acceptability of linguistic forms and their possible structural
interpretations. The examples I’ve considered in outlining the orthodox model are all
suggestive of a contrary view. Speakers have a sense of broad structural properties of
pieces of language, as evidenced by examples (4), (5), (8), (13), and (14), and which are
the acceptable forms, as evidenced by examples (1), (2), (3), (10), and (11).
Second, as Devitt himself has pointed out, intuitions about what is said are of interest to
the grammarian. These intuitions are revealing of linguistic form, because linguistic
form acts as a constraint on speakers’ understanding of what is said. Though these
16
09.03.2020
Linguistic Intuitions | The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | Oxford Academic
https://academic.oup.com/bjps/article/61/1/123/1451363
26/45
intuitions of what is said are informed by more besides, in particular by semantic and
pragmatic information, linguistic structure is an important determinant. The sorts of
intuitions drawn upon by grammarians and pragmatists are not sharply discontinuous.
The speaker has intuitions about what is said on a given occasion that are partially
determined by his immediate recognition of the structure of the expressions of his
language. Devitt does not think that such intuitions are the topic of the theory of
grammatical intuitions because they do not involve speakers’ having intuitions about
theoretical properties like c-command and binding, in the sense of making explicit
mention of these theoretical properties. But, on the orthodox view, if the intuitions are
being used as evidence about the internal structure of grammatical competence and how
competence is organized in terms of such properties, then the intuitions are of obvious
relevance though they do not involve speakers’ overtly considering such theoretical
properties. The informant need have no way of describing sentences; he need only
associate various rst-order meanings with sentences. As structure constrains
interpretation, it is then a theoretical matter to determine what re ects grammatical
competence as opposed to other competences and performance factors. The structure of
the grammatical competence that is targeted on the orthodox model is part of the
explanation of such comprehension of what is said. That is why judgements about what
is said, associations of rst-order meanings without metalinguistic categorizations, are
important to grammatical theory and determining the contours of speakers’ languages.
4 Devitt's Model: Linguistic Intuitions as Theory-laden
Judgements
4.1 Devitt's model
Devitt claims that by ‘linguistic intuitions’ linguists mean ‘fairly immediate unre ective
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |