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[N. Gregory(N. Gregory Mankiw) Mankiw] Principles (BookFi)

tax incidence
to refer to these questions about the distribution
of a tax burden. As we will see, we can learn some surprising lessons about tax in-
cidence just by applying the tools of supply and demand.
H O W TA X E S O N B U Y E R S A F F E C T M A R K E T O U T C O M E S
We first consider a tax levied on buyers of a good. Suppose, for instance, that our
local government passes a law requiring buyers of ice-cream cones to send $0.50 to
the government for each ice-cream cone they buy. How does this law affect the
buyers and sellers of ice cream? To answer this question, we can follow the three
steps in Chapter 4 for analyzing supply and demand: (1) We decide whether the
law affects the supply curve or demand curve. (2) We decide which way the curve
shifts. (3) We examine how the shift affects the equilibrium.
The initial impact of the tax is on the demand for ice cream. The supply curve
is not affected because, for any given price of ice cream, sellers have the same in-
centive to provide ice cream to the market. By contrast, buyers now have to pay a
tax to the government (as well as the price to the sellers) whenever they buy ice
cream. Thus, the tax shifts the demand curve for ice cream.
The direction of the shift is easy to determine. Because the tax on buyers
makes buying ice cream less attractive, buyers demand a smaller quantity of ice
cream at every price. As a result, the demand curve shifts to the left (or, equiva-
lently, downward), as shown in Figure 6-6.
t a x i n c i d e n c e
the study of who bears the burden
of taxation
$3.30
3.00
2.80
Quantity of
Ice-Cream Cones
0
Price of
Ice-Cream
Cone
Price
without
tax
Price
sellers
receive
100
90
Equilibrium
with tax
Equilibrium without tax
Tax ($0.50)
Price
buyers
pay
D
1
D
2
Supply, 
S
1
A tax on buyers
shifts the demand
curve downward
by the size of
the tax ($0.50).
F i g u r e 6 - 6
A T
AX ON
B
UYERS
.
When a tax
of $0.50 is levied on buyers, the
demand curve shifts down by
$0.50 from 
D
1
to 
D
2
. The
equilibrium quantity falls from
100 to 90 cones. The price that
sellers receive falls from $3.00 to
$2.80. The price that buyers pay
(including the tax) rises from
$3.00 to $3.30. Even though the
tax is levied on buyers, buyers
and sellers share the burden of
the tax.


1 3 0
PA R T T W O
S U P P LY A N D D E M A N D I : H O W M A R K E T S W O R K
We can, in this case, be precise about how much the curve shifts. Because of
the $0.50 tax levied on buyers, the effective price to buyers is now $0.50 higher
than the market price. For example, if the market price of a cone happened to be
$2.00, the effective price to buyers would be $2.50. Because buyers look at their to-
tal cost including the tax, they demand a quantity of ice cream as if the market
price were $0.50 higher than it actually is. In other words, to induce buyers to de-
mand any given quantity, the market price must now be $0.50 lower to make up
for the effect of the tax. Thus, the tax shifts the demand curve 
downward
from 
D
1
to
D
2
by exactly the size of the tax ($0.50).
To see the effect of the tax, we compare the old equilibrium and the new equi-
librium. You can see in the figure that the equilibrium price of ice cream falls from
$3.00 to $2.80 and the equilibrium quantity falls from 100 to 90 cones. Because sell-
ers sell less and buyers buy less in the new equilibrium, the tax on ice cream re-
duces the size of the ice-cream market.
Now let’s return to the question of tax incidence: Who pays the tax? Although
buyers send the entire tax to the government, buyers and sellers share the burden.
Because the market price falls from $3.00 to $2.80 when the tax is introduced, sellers
receive $0.20 less for each ice-cream cone than they did without the tax. Thus, the
tax makes sellers worse off. Buyers pay sellers a lower price ($2.80), but the effective
price including the tax rises from $3.00 before the tax to $3.30 with the tax ($2.80 +
$0.50 = $3.30). Thus, the tax also makes buyers worse off.
To sum up, the analysis yields two general lessons:

Taxes discourage market activity. When a good is taxed, the quantity of the
good sold is smaller in the new equilibrium.

Buyers and sellers share the burden of taxes. In the new equilibrium, buyers
pay more for the good, and sellers receive less.
H O W TA X E S O N S E L L E R S A F F E C T M A R K E T O U T C O M E S
Now consider a tax levied on sellers of a good. Suppose the local government
passes a law requiring sellers of ice-cream cones to send $0.50 to the government
for each cone they sell. What are the effects of this law?
In this case, the initial impact of the tax is on the supply of ice cream. Because
the tax is not levied on buyers, the quantity of ice cream demanded at any given
price is the same, so the demand curve does not change. By contrast, the tax on sell-
ers raises the cost of selling ice cream, and leads sellers to supply a smaller quantity
at every price. The supply curve shifts to the left (or, equivalently, upward).
Once again, we can be precise about the magnitude of the shift. For any mar-
ket price of ice cream, the effective price to sellers—the amount they get to keep af-
ter paying the tax—is $0.50 lower. For example, if the market price of a cone
happened to be $2.00, the effective price received by sellers would be $1.50. What-
ever the market price, sellers will supply a quantity of ice cream as if the price
were $0.50 lower than it is. Put differently, to induce sellers to supply any given
quantity, the market price must now be $0.50 higher to compensate for the effect of
the tax. Thus, as shown in Figure 6-7, the supply curve shifts 

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