Religious Beliefs
The most dramatic evidence of early spiritual life in the ancient Ferghana are the
monumental temples of fire-worshippers in Sultanabad
129
and Kizlartepe, consist-
ing of a central hall and surrounding corridors.
130
The former has been dated to the
third to the first century
bce
.
131
The Kizlartepe temple on the edge of an ancient
town near Margilan was built in the second century
ce
, functioned for two centu-
ries thereafter, and was apparently destroyed by invading steppe tribes in the early
Middle Ages.
132
The earlier worship of forces of nature lived on into this era. Designs found on
first-century vases depict stylized mountains, rain, and the sun, all of which resi-
dents worshiped as holy forces. In the south of Ferghana stood the holy mountain
of Ulugtog (Great Mountain), while the Suleiman-Too near Osh has been a place
of worship since earliest times. As recently as the 1960s locals were conducting
ritual immolations at a mountain in the Arayan region, where ancient images of
horses are also to be found. All of these may attest to the beliefs of early Turkic
peoples, among whom reverence for mountains was widespread. Popular images
of grape vines, spirals, and circles are most likely linked to a vegetable cult of the
early Ferghanans. Also appearing are a triangular-shaped figure and stylized images
of the sun. A downward-pointing triangle symbolized fertility and was common in
the region since Neolithic times.
133
As we have seen from the Kayragach sculpture,
the ancient peoples of Ferghana also worshipped the spirits of their ancestors and
considered them their patrons.
Zoroastrianism was the most ancient religion in Ferghana and all Central Asia,
preceding the main world religions. The spread of Zoroastrianism in the northern
and eastern territories of Central Asia was stimulated by the growth of long-distance
trade, which bloomed especially in the period 500–900
ce
. Thus, we find the
THE PRE-COLONIAL LEGACY 21
early acceptance of Zoroastrian burial practices far beyond the original focus of
Zoroastrianism in Bactria to the south. In Ferghana as elsewhere the bones of the
dead were now separated from flesh, and instead of using underground catacomb
graves they were preserved in above-ground structures, called dahma, ustadan,
tanbar,
and kaftarhona. Long after the arrival of Islam, Zoroastrianism remained a
major religion in Ferghana. Near the ancient town of Sari-Kurgan in Sokh region
there is a large and famous Zoroastrian cemetery that continued to receive burials
long into the Muslim era. Reports of “magicians” (i.e., magi) and fire-worshippers
still abound at many sites in Ferghana. Thus, the ruins of Kasan are called Mug-
tepe or the “Magis’ Hill.”
Almost no information exists about the proselytizing of religions in Ferghana
until the times of the Arabic conquest. However, since Buddhism was so wide-
spread from Balkh and Termez to Merv, Samarkand, and even the Seven Rivers
area, one may assume there were Buddhist adherents in Ferghana. Evidence from
elsewhere in the region suggests further that it was likely to have been of the
Vajrayana school—a later path of Buddhism in Central Asia as compared to the
earlier Hinayana and Mahayana.
134
Evidence also exists of at least one Christian
church in Ferghana, and one can safely assume that there many others, mostly of
the Nestorian Syrian theology.
Islam spread quickly from its source in Arabia. Social discontent among the
lower levels of the Arab tribal elites was easily directed by the leadership toward
non-believers and heretics in faraway places. For the Arabic aristocracy, the Islamic
notion of jihad, or holy war against non-believers, provided a convenient screen to
disguise the true goals of their campaigns of conquest. When the Arab forces arrived
in Central Asia, they found a rich region in a state of political uncertainty, with many
independent and semi-independent principalities competing against each other.
135
But when Caliph Osman sent his troops to Ferghana they faced staunch resistance
at Ispid-Bulan (now Safed-Bulon in Jalalabad province), as a result of which 2,700
“Companions of the Prophet” died in battle and were buried there.
136
The inhabitants of Ferghana gradually embraced Islam, and by the mid-eighth
century Muslim shrines started appearing there. They are still considered sacred
places. The tomb of the saintly Ayuba was established near Jalalabad, the tomb of
Abdullah, grandson of Imam Khussein, was in Kokand, and the tomb of the Arab
conqueror Nasr ibn Ali is in Uzgen.
137
There were also two holy places in Andijan,
one of them close to the Rushnabi Mosque, where the famous sheikh al-Marvazi
was buried, and the other in Ilamish, where the famous sheikh Jamal ad’din al-
Ilamishi had lived. And at Osh was the tomb of Asaf, the vizier of Sulayman ibn
Daud, from the early eighth century.
138
Muslim teachers and clerics gradually came to play an important part in the
social and political life of the country. Thus, from earliest times Sheikh Sultan Said
and his son Sheikh Burhan ad’din Klich al-Uzgendi came to be acknowledged as
figures of impeccable authority. In every part of the country and in any city, the
authority of religious leaders among the local population grew rapidly. Special
22 SAIDOV, ANARBAEV, GORIYACHEVA
authority was extended to the author of a famous religious tract titled Al-Hidayah
fi-l-fikh ( Guidelines of the Muslim Law), Sheikh Burhan al-Din al-Marghinani.
Emirs and other feudals often based their decisions on the opinion of the clergy.
In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries
ce
, the most influential figures among
the clergy in Ferghana included Nusrat ad-din, the son of Sheikh Burhan ad’din
Klich al-Uzgendi, Munir ibn Abu-l-Kasim al-Oshi, Shams ad’din Muhammad ibn
Muhammad al-Kubavi, Taj ad’din Razi Birdi ash-Sharistani al-Andijani, and Jamal
ad’din al-Hiravi al-Ilamishi.
139
Their names reveal them as natives of Uzgen, Osh,
Kuba, Andijan, and Ilamish, respectively.
During Babur’s short reign in Ferghana in the fifteenth century, the head of
the Muslim clergy, Hodja Kazi, played an important role in the affairs of state. In
the next century a similarly notable role was played by a famous sheikh from the
Naqshbandia order of Sufis, Mahdumi A’zam from the city of Kasan, and his suc-
cessor, Mavlana Lutfullah Chusti from Chodak in the Ferghana Valley.
140
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the status of religious leaders grew
even greater, and they came to play direct roles in governance. It is no exaggera-
tion to conclude that by the end of seventeenth century the hojas and mullahs had
become a dominant force in the social and political life of Ferghana.
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