whiff of a crisis.
220
PA R T I I I
Financial Institutions
Also, stock market declines and increases in uncertainty initiated and con-
tributed to full-blown financial crises in Mexico, Thailand, South Korea, and
Argentina. (The stock market declines in Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines,
on the other hand, occurred simultaneously with the onset of these crises.) The
Mexican economy was hit by political shocks in 1994 (specifically, the assassina-
tion of the ruling party s presidential candidate, Luis Colosio, and an uprising in
the southern state of Chiapas) that created uncertainty, while the ongoing reces-
sion increased uncertainty in Argentina. Right before their crises, Thailand and
South Korea experienced major failures of financial and nonfinancial firms that
increased general uncertainty in financial markets.
As we have seen, an increase in uncertainty and a decrease in net worth as a
result of a stock market decline increase asymmetric information problems. It
becomes harder to screen out good from bad borrowers. The decline in net worth
decreases the value of firms collateral and increases their incentives to make risky
investments because there is less equity to lose if the investments are unsuccess-
ful. The increase in uncertainty and stock market declines that occurred before the
it was still restricting foreign capital inflows
and to claim that it was opening up to for-
eign capital in a prudent manner. In the after-
math of these changes, Korean banks
opened 28 branches in foreign countries that
gave them access to foreign funds.
Although Korean financial institutions
now had access to foreign capital, the chae-
bols still had a problem. They were not
allowed to own commercial banks and so
the chaebols might not get all of the bank
loans that they needed. What was the
answer? The chaebols needed to get their
hands on financial institutions that they
could own, that were allowed to borrow
abroad, and that were subject to very little
regulation. The financial institution could
then engage in connected lending by bor-
rowing foreign funds and then lending them
to the chaebols who owned the institution.
An existing type of financial institution
specific to South Korea perfectly met the
chaebols requirements: the merchant bank.
Merchant banking corporations were whole-
sale financial institutions that engaged in
underwriting securities, leasing, and short-
term lending to the corporate sector. They
obtained funds for these loans by issuing
bonds and commercial paper and by bor-
rowing from inter-bank and foreign markets.
At the time of the Korean crisis, merchant
banks were allowed to borrow abroad and
were virtually unregulated. The chaebols
saw their opportunity. Government officials,
often lured with bribery and kickbacks,
allowed many finance companies (some
already owned by the chaebols) that were
not allowed to borrow abroad to be con-
verted into merchant banks, which could. In
1990 there were only six merchant banks and
all of them were foreign affiliated. By 1997,
after the chaebols had exercised their politi-
cal influence, there were thirty merchant
banks, sixteen of which were owned by
chaebols, two of which were foreign owned
but in which chaebols were major share-
holders, and twelve of which were indepen-
dent of the chaebols, but Korean owned. The
chaebols were now able to exploit con-
nected lending with a vengeance: the mer-
chant banks channelled massive amounts of
funds to their chaebol owners, where they
flowed into unproductive investments in
steel, automobile production, and chemicals.
When the loans went sour, the stage was set
for a disastrous financial crisis.