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Training refers to the process by which job-related skills and knowledge are
taught (Mintzberg, 1979). Pugh et al. (1968) state that training is concerned with
developing and transforming human resources, and consists of, among others,
management trainees, apprenticeships, operator training, and evening classes.
Connell et al. (2014) state that ICT competencies are important and therefore
developments in ICT require training. Employees need to learn how to use new
technological applications. “
Computerized firms will seek to address the increased
relative demand for high cognitive skill labor by hiring more skilled and educated
workers and by investing more heavily in training for existing workers
” (Bresnahan et
al., 1999). Townsend et al. (1998) state that “
to fully exploit the advantages of the
new environment, virtual team members will require basic teamwork training and
development, and will also need training to enhance team workers' facility with the
new information and communication technologies
”. There thus seems to be a
relationship between ICT and training.
NWW, which is enabled by ICT, has influence on the necessity of training.
Myerson et al. (2010) claim that after IT solutions have been implemented in the
new workspace, “
knowledge workers are often left to fend for themselves without
adequate training and support
”, resulting in an ineffective deployment of technology.
NWW asks for an output-driven way of leadership (Locke and Latham, 1990; Cascio,
2000; Jung et al., 2003; Bijl, 2009), which requires training. Furthermore, time and
place independent working styles create a risk of working in private time (Wittel,
2001; Katz and Aarhus, 2002; Jarvenpaa and Lang, 2005; Lyons and Urry, 2005;
Veldhoen, 2005; Orlikowsky, 2007; Schwanen and Kwan, 2008; Kelliher and
Anderson, 2010; Line et al., 2011; Hermelin and Trygg, 2012; Ten Brummelhuis et al.,
2012; Allen et al., 2013), which is a possible source of work-related stress (Hill et al.,
1996; Van der Voordt and Pullen, 2002). Van Echtelt et al. (2006) found much
empirical support that employees that had more autonomy in scheduling time and
place of work made longer workweeks. Because work never stops due to the 24 hour
economy, NWW exhausts employees at the end of the working day (Derks and
Bakker, 2010). Ten Brummelhuis et al. (2012) conclude that “
NWW enhance
engagement due to high-pace, effective and continuous communication, but also
exhaust employees due to enhanced interruptions
”. Furthermore, Spiegelman and
Detsky (2008) warn for the possible negative side-effects of the changes in
communication (such as continuous connectivity and increasing interruptions)
caused by NWW. Employees need to have certain competences to deal with the
mentioned negative effects of NWW (Den Hengst et al., 2008). NWW also require
training in certain behavioral rules, such as use of workplaces, clean desk policy, and
archiving (Vos and Van der Voordt, 2001b). Organizations serve an important role in
training employees, since they are concerned with the health and well-being of their
employees. This emphasizes the positive relationship between NWW and training.
Since both ICT and NWW are related to training, this design parameter is
used in the empirical part of this study as ‘
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