The Skillful Teacher

participation) desires.
If teachers assign part of a grade for discussion “participation,”
without defining what participation looks like, this will immediately
activate the norm that defines participation as speaking frequently
and confidently. Learners invariably interpret the teacher’s injunc-
tion to participate as meaning that they (the students) should do
their best to exemplify this norm of loquacity. So they carefully
rehearse stunningly insightful contributions that will make them
sound profound and informed. Discussion teachers then often
deploy a range of subtle, nonverbal behaviors to signify approval or
disapproval of participants’ efforts to conform to the norm. Through
nods, frowns, eye contact (or the lack of it), sighs of frustration or
pity, grunts of agreement, disbelieving intakes of breath at the obvi-
ous stupidity of a particular comment, and a wide range of other ges-
tures, discussion leaders communicate to group members when they
are close to, or moving away from, the norm.
Unless discussion leaders redefine criteria for discussion partic-
ipation to challenge this norm, learners will work assiduously to gear
their behavior towards its realization. Discussion groups always con-
tain potentially powerful psychodynamics and can easily become
competitive emotional battlegrounds, gladiatorial arenas in which