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Table 8.8 demonstrates that in SettCorp, discourse marker
actually
is three times
more frequent than the propositional use of the marker. This is in contrast to other
studies such as Lenk (1998) who reported that 53.13% of all examples of
actually
were discourse markers, whereas in Aijmer (2002) the figure was 55.6%. There are a
number of possible explanations for this. Both Lenk and Aijmer use the LLC, where,
as previously mentioned, although it is noted that the speakers are generally close
friends (Aijmer, 2002: 4), the corpus also contains conversation between academic
associates and speakers on an unequal professional power gradient (for example,
professors-secretaries). In addition to this, not all conversations are spontaneous and
face-to-face, some of them are telephone based and others public and prepared. In
addition, Lenk uses the Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken American English which
was designed as a comparable corpus to the LLC. In contrast, both TravCorp and
SettCorp are exclusively face-to-face conversations recorded in the home/family
environment, one of the most intimate of speech contexts. The non-occurrence of
actually
in TravCorp makes it impossible to ascertain whether or not the functional
distribution of the marker in SettCorp in Table 8.8 is representative and,
undoubtedly, further research is needed to verify this. However, arguably of greater
importance within the scope of this study are the reasons underlying the differences
in frequency of the marker across the two families.
Although the size of TravCorp does not allow for any strong conclusions
to be made,
it could be proposed that the characteristics unique to the Traveller family CofP once
again exert a controlling influence on the conversational manoeuvres made by the
participants. For example, the existence of the ethnic trait of a strong Traveller
kinship culture may negate the need to use
actually
in an interpersonal way. These
traits are instead embodied within the CofP itself. Furthermore, Fung and Carter
(2007) note that discourse markers like
actually
, while frequent in British English,
have only limited occurrences in Hong Kong English. They maintain that
actually
functions primarily in an interpersonal category to mark the attitudes or stance of a
speaker. However, Cheng and Warren (2001) have observed that non-native
speakers of English use the marker more frequently than native speakers and
attribute it to the differences between Eastern and Western cultures‟ attention to
face. Western face is primarily concerned with attention to positive and negative
face, both of which refer to the needs of the individual to be approved of,
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appreciated and unimpeded by others (see Brown and Levinson, 1987). Mao (1995:
212-219) maintains that Chinese speakers demonstrate the need to be respected and
positively evaluated by others, but not necessarily liked by them. Scollon and
Scollon (1995: 131), in their analysis of East Asian „collectivist‟ discourse styles,
maintain that „individual members of a culture are not seen as independently acting
individuals, but rather they are seen as acting within hierarchies of kinship and other
relationships.‟ They claim that in Eastern cultures, a son or daughter‟s actions are
motivated by the credit that their parents and ancestors will receive. The Traveller
community in general exhibits some of the characteristics of these collectivist
cultures such as the primacy of the (extended) family unit and therefore any analysis
of this community‟s politeness strategies may have to be undertaken by adapting the
traditional model of face.
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