22
does not provide conversational participants with sufficient knowledge to be able to
understand examples of language use. Therefore, it is within the notion of
communicative competence that the study of pragmatics is located.
The term
pragmatics
is often used in linguistic research to refer to the study of the
interpretation of meaning. Although it has proven difficult to determine an exact
definition for the term pragmatics (Levinson discusses the issue over more than fifty
pages in his influential 1983 work
Pragmatics
), a user-friendly definition is that
suggested by Fasold (1990: 119) as „the study of the use of context to make inferences
about meaning.‟ In this definition, inferences refer to deductions made by participants
based on available evidence (Christie, 2000). This available evidence is, according to
pragmaticists, provided by the context within which the utterance takes place. Cutting
(2008: 3-11) distinguishes between three different types of spoken context;
situational
,
what speakers know about what they can see around them,
background knowledge
, what
they know about each other (interpersonal knowledge) and the world (cultural
knowledge), and
co-textual
, what they know about what they have been saying.
Therefore, the pragmatic choices made by conversational participants can
simultaneously encode situational indices of position and time and interpersonal and
cultural indices such as power, status, gender and age. Thus, pragmatics provides,
Christie (2000: 29) maintains, „a theoretical framework that can account for the
relationship between the cultural setting, the language user, the linguistic choices the
user makes, and the factors that underlie those choices.‟
In relation to language use differences, Wolfram and Schilling-Estes (2006: 94)
maintain that „different social and cultural groups often have contrasting expectations
about the appropriate use of direct and indirect expressions.‟ Therefore, the study of
politeness forms a cornerstone of the present study. Holmes (1995: 10) claims that in
different social groups „ways of being polite often contrast markedly.‟ As a precursor to
reference to politeness strategies in Chapters 7 and 8, an in-depth exploration of the
concept of linguistic politeness, in particular Brown and Levinson‟s ([1978] 1987)
23
model, will be addressed in the following section. Wolfram and Schilling-Estes (2006:
94) further argue that:
…contrasting expectations about directness may lead to misunderstandings across
different groups…children who are used to more indirectness may feel threatened or
intimidated by adults who consider directness to be the appropriate norm for directives
with children.
In relation to family discourse, the issue of pragmatic socialisation is explored in order
to account for the influence of factors such as gender or ethnicity on the socialisation
processes employed by parents in conversation with their children. As has already been
mentioned, it is hoped that, in the longer term, this might be used as a starting point to
address some of the distrust that exists within Irish society between the Traveller and
settled communities.
2.1.1 Linguistic
politeness
Perhaps the most famous, and most remarked upon (both positively and negatively)
study of politeness is Brown and Levinson‟s model. Their publication
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