Case Study: The Kansas City Experiments
1.
A century ago, a legendary figure in American law enforcement named O. W. Wilson came up
with the idea of “preventive patrol.”
1
Wilson believed that having police cars in constant,
unpredictable motion throughout a city’s streets would deter crime. Any would-be criminal
would always have to wonder if a police car was just around the corner.
But think about it. When you walk down the street of your neighborhood, do you feel like the
police are just around the corner? Cities are vast, sprawling places. It’s not obvious that a police
force—even a large police force—could ever create the feeling that they were everywhere.
This was the question facing the Kansas City Police Department in the early 1970s. The
department was about to hire extra police officers, but it was divided over how to deploy them.
Should they follow Wilson’s advice—and have them drive randomly around the city? Or assign
them to specific locations—such as schools or difficult neighborhoods? To resolve the question,
the city hired a criminologist named George Kelling.
“One group said riding around in cars doesn’t improve anything, it doesn’t do anything,”
Kelling remembers. “Another group said it’s absolutely essential. That was the standoff. Then I
was brought in.”
Kelling’s idea was to select fifteen beats from the southern part of the city and divide them
into three groups. It was a big area: thirty-two square miles, 150,000 people, good neighborhoods
and bad neighborhoods, and even a little farmland on the fringes. One of the three groups would
be the control group. Police work would continue there as it always had. In the second
neighborhood, Kelling would have no preventive patrol at all; police officers would respond only
when called. In the third neighborhood, he would double and in some cases triple the number of
squad cars on the streets.
“Nothing like this had ever been done in policing,” Kelling remembers. “This was 1970.
Nothing had been written about police tactics.…This was at a very primitive stage in policing.”
People like O. W. Wilson had ideas and hunches. But police work was considered an art, not a
science that could be evaluated like a new drug. Kelling says that many people told him his
experiment would fail, “that the police simply weren’t ready for research. I wouldn’t be able to
do it. They’d sabotage it.” But Kelling had the backing of the city’s police chief. The chief had
spent the bulk of his career in the FBI, and he was shocked to learn how little police departments
seemed to know about what they did. “Many of us in the department,” the chief would later
admit, “had the feeling we were training, equipping, and deploying men to do a job neither we,
nor anyone else, knew much about.” He told Kelling to go ahead.
Kelling ran the experiment for a year, meticulously collecting every statistic he could on
crime in the three areas of the study. The result? Nothing. Burglaries were the same in all three
neighborhoods. So were auto thefts, robberies, and vandalism. The citizens in the areas with
beefed-up patrols didn’t feel any safer than the people in the areas with no patrols. They didn’t
even seem to notice what had happened. “The results were all in one direction and that was, it
doesn’t make any difference,” Kelling said. “It didn’t matter to citizen satisfaction, it didn’t
matter to crime statistics, it just didn’t seem to matter.”
Every police chief in the country read the results. Initially, there was disbelief. Some urban
police departments were still committed Wilsonites. Kelling remembers the Los Angeles Police
Chief standing up at one national law-enforcement conference and saying, “If those findings are
true, every officer in Kansas City was asleep at the switch because I can assure you that’s not
how it is in Los Angeles.”
But slowly resistance gave way to resignation. The study came out as violent crime was
beginning its long, hard, two-decade surge across the United States, and it fed into the growing
feeling among people in law enforcement that the task before them was overwhelming. They had
thought they could prevent crime with police patrols, but now the Kansas City PD had tested that
assumption empirically, and patrols turned out to be a charade. And if patrols didn’t work, what
did? Lee Brown, chief of the New York City Police Department, gave a famous interview in the
middle of the crack epidemic in which he all but threw up his hands. “This country’s social
problems are well beyond the ability of the police to deal with on their own,” Brown said. He
had read George Kelling’s Kansas City report. It was hopeless. No matter how many police
officers a city had, Brown said, “You could never have enough to use traditional policing
techniques to deter crime.…If you don’t have a police officer to cover every part of the city all
the time, the chance of an officer on patrol coming across a crime in progress is very small.”
In 1990, President George H. W. Bush came to Kansas City. He spent the morning in one of
the city’s poorest and most violent neighborhoods, then gave a speech to a group of local police
officers. He tried to be upbeat. He failed. The homicide rate that year in Kansas City was three
times the national average. It would go up again in 1991 and again in 1992, then once more in
1993. There wasn’t much to say. Halfway through his remarks, Bush was reduced to simply
listing the terrible things happening on the city’s streets:
A four-year-old boy shot dead in a suspected crack house; an eleven-year-old kid gunned
down outside another drug den, allegedly at the hands of a fourteen-year-old guard; in a
downtown bar, a mother sells her baby for crack; and a firebombing leaves three generations
dead, including a grandmother and three little kids—the headlines are horrifying, sickening,
outrageous.
But in the early 1990s, twenty years after the first Kansas City experiment, Kansas City
decided to try again. They hired another brilliant young criminologist named Lawrence Sherman.
As they had with George Kelling, they gave him free rein. It was time for Kansas City
Experiment Number Two. Why not? Nothing else was working.
2.
Lawrence Sherman thought the focus ought to be on guns. He believed the sheer number of guns
in the city was what fueled its epidemic of violence. His plan was to try a number of ideas in
sequence, rigorously evaluate their effectiveness—as Kelling had done—and pick a winner. He
called a planning meeting with a group of the city’s senior police officers. They chose as their
testing ground Patrol District 144: a small, 0.64-square-mile neighborhood of modest single-
family homes, bounded to the south by 39th Street and to the west by Highway 71. District 144
was as bad as Kansas City got in the early 1990s. The homicide rate there was twenty times the
national average. The area averaged one violent felony a day and twenty-four drive-by shootings
a year. A third of the lots were vacant. Just a few months before, an officer had been on patrol
through 144 when he saw some kids playing basketball in the street. He stopped, got out, and
asked them to move. One of the players threw the basketball at his head, then two others jumped
him. It was that kind of place.
Sherman’s first idea was for two-man teams to knock on every door in the neighborhood over
a three-month period. The officers would introduce themselves, talk about gun violence, and give
the residents a flyer with an 800 number on it: if they heard anything about guns, they were
encouraged to call in an anonymous tip. The plan went off without a hitch. In many of the visits,
the officers were trailed by a graduate student in criminology, James Shaw, whose job was to
evaluate the program’s effectiveness. Sometimes the officers stayed for as long as twenty
minutes, chatting with people who had never had a police officer come to their door other than to
make an arrest. In his subsequent write-up, Shaw was effusive:
The police went to every residence in that community, some more than once, and talked to
residents in a friendly, non-threatening manner. In response, people were very receptive and
glad to see the police going door to door. People frequently responded with comments like
“God bless you all, we shoulda’ had a program like this before,” or “Thank God! I didn’t
think you all would ever come.”
In the end, 88 percent of the people visited said that they would use the hotline if they saw
any guns. So how many calls came in—after 858 door-to-door visits over three months? Two.
Both were about guns in another neighborhood.
The problem, everyone soon realized, was not that the residents of District 144 didn’t want to
help. They did. It was that they never left their houses. “It’s starting to sound like Beirut around
here,” one homeowner told Shaw, and if you’re so scared that you never leave your house, how
on earth do you know who has guns or not? Shaw wrote:
Not unlike residents in many other inner-city neighborhoods, these people have become like
caged animals in their own homes; bars on the windows are the norm. One is not surprised
even to see bars on second-story windows. More dismal however is the fact that in house after
house the blinds are drawn and drapes closed up tightly, blocking out any trace of the outside
world. These elderly people lock themselves up and shut themselves in. They hear the world
outside, and it sometimes sounds like a battle zone. But they can’t see anything.
The group’s next idea was to train officers in the subtle art of spotting concealed weapons.
The impetus came from a New York City police officer named Robert T. Gallagher, who in
eighteen years on the force had disarmed an astonishing 1,200 people. Gallagher had elaborate
theories, worked out over many years: street criminals overwhelmingly put their guns in their
waistbands (on the left side, in the case of a right-hander), causing a subtle but discernible hitch
in their stride. The leg on the gun side takes a shorter step than the leg on the nongun side, and
the corresponding arm follows a similarly constrained trajectory. When stepping off curbs or
getting out of a car, Gallagher believed, gun carriers invariably glance toward their weapons or
unconsciously adjust them.
Gallagher flew to Kansas City, with great fanfare, the month after the failed hotline
experiment. He gave seminars. He made videos. The officers took notes. The television program
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