Party leader during Soviet days—would remain in power. Unlike Presi-
dent Nabiyev in neighboring Tajikistan, Karimov was able to squelch all
Islamic oppositional forces (gaining an abysmal human rights violation
record in the process).
Regardless of this relative sense of religious security, a number of
people did describe experiences of prejudice against them as Jews in a
Muslim society. “The Muslims think all the Jews have gold buried in
the courtyards,” one man told me. Another man said, “The Uzbeks and
the Tajiks may hate each other, but they all hate the Jews.” This feel-
ing of being persecuted as Jews in a Muslim society, however, paled in
comparison to the feeling of being marginalized from the Uzbek national
project—not because they were Jews but because they were not Uzbek.
This sense most strongly manifested itself in discussions about language.
Throughout the Soviet era, the Jews, who were primarily educated
urban dwellers, spoke Russian, which they had learned in school. They
also continued to speak their native language, Tajik, a Persian language
that was also spoken by the large Muslim, ethnic Tajik minority living in
212 · Alanna E. Cooper
Samarkand and Bukhara. With these language skills, they rarely found
themselves marginalized prior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Once Uzbekistan became independent and new language policies were
instituted, however, Jews began to find it difficult to gain admittance
into universities and to get jobs because they did not speak Uzbek. They
also began feeling marginalized as Russian faded from its position as
the primarily public language. Israel, a middle-aged man in Bukhara,
explained, “Nationalism is growing. Who the hell knows what will hap-
pen? Before perestroika, I felt at home. Afterward, I began to feel differ-
ent, like an outsider. There has been a cut in Russian broadcasting, and
there are no longer Russian newspapers on sale. I can’t understand a bit
of Uzbek, and it’s too late for me to learn.” Another woman in Bukhara
expressed a similar sentiment. “I’ve lived here for fifty years, and I don’t
know Uzbek. Now the language is everywhere.” Mazal, a middle-aged
woman in Bukhara, explained that while the new language policies did
not discriminate against Jews per se, they were bringing an end to Uz-
bekistan as a multicultural society. “Bukhara used to be a city with many
different nationality groups. But now the Russians have left, the Tatars,
the Armenians. Each has gone to their own place. Karimov did this. He
made it so that only the Uzbeks are staying.”
In sum, Bukharan Jews in Uzbekistan expressed feelings of margin-
alization both in terms of their religious identity as Jews among Mus-
lims and in terms of their national (or ethnic) identity as non-Uzbeks.
These two factors may have been particularly potent in the first months
after the Soviet Union’s dissolution, as the Jews in Uzbekistan may have
feared that Tajikistan’s civil war would spread across the border. They
were, however, set against the backdrop of Bukharan Jews’ strong ties to
the local space and the sense that they were at home in the region.
This feeling of belonging was due in large part to their long history
in Central Asia. Having lived in the area for well over a millennium, the
Jews’ presence there stretches back long before the arrival of the Uzbeks
themselves. Furthermore, Bukharan Jews have no collective memory of
having lived in any other Diaspora home. Unlike the Jews in Turkey,
for example, who carry the collective memory of their ancestors’ long
sojourn in Spain, Central Asia is the only home Bukharan Jews have
known since their forebears’ expulsion at the hands of the Babylonians
in ancient times. This deep connection to place was well articulated by
an elderly man who began an interview by explaining, “I was born in
Where Have All the Jews Gone? Mass Migration from Independent Uzbekistan · 213
Samarkand. My father, too. My grandfather, too. Grandfather’s father,
too. Great-great-grandfather, too, in Samarkand. Bukharan Jews have
lived in Samarkand for two thousand years.” Even the Bukharan Jews’
spoken language is testimony to their deep connections to the local space.
Rather than being a language that is derived from experiences in a previ-
ous home—such as Yiddish, a Germanic language that marked the Jews
as outsiders in Poland—Bukharan Jews speak one of the region’s many
Tajik dialects.
In addition to feeling that they belonged to the local space, the Jewish
and Bukharan aspects of their identity had become strongly intertwined
during the Soviet era, further binding them to their Central Asian Di-
aspora home. When the region was incorporated into the USSR in the
1920s, heavy restrictions were placed on emigration and travel, mail was
monitored, and it became close to impossible to get access to religious
books printed abroad. The ties Bukharan Jews had formed with Jewish
communities in Europe and Palestine during the colonial era were sud-
denly severed. Tight boundaries were drawn around their own small
communities, which became largely impermeable to the influences of
Jewish life outside.
29
Confined in Soviet Central Asia, Bukharan Jews stopped identifying
themselves in relation to other Jewish groups. In Israel and the United
States, Bukharan Jewish music, dance, costume, and cuisine is celebrated
as one “brand” of Jewish culture within a multiethnic Jewish world.
But in Central Asia, Bukharan Jews simply saw themselves as Jews and
their culture as a Jewish variant of local culture. When I asked people
to describe what was unique about Bukharan Jews, their answers never
hinged on a comparison between themselves and other Jewish groups.
There was one exception: they distinguished themselves from the Ash-
kenazi Jews living in Central Asia, most of whom arrived in the region
during World War II after escaping or being forced out of their homes
in Eastern Europe.
30
Unlike the Bukharan Jews who maintained their
Jewish practices and a strong sense of Jewish identity throughout the
Soviet era, the Ashkenazi Jews in Central Asia tended to be highly as-
similated—both structurally and culturally—into the region’s Russian
population. The reference to themselves as “Bukharan Jews” and to the
others as “Ashkenazi Jews,” then, implied a comparison between those
who continued to practice Judaism and to strongly identify themselves as
Jews throughout the Soviet era and those who did not. We are the chistiye
214 · Alanna E. Cooper
evrei (real or pure Jews), they would tell me, whereas they are impure
or “half Jews.” This strong distinction is highlighted in the low rates of
intermarriage between the groups.
31
Bukharan Jewish identity was so
tightly linked to locality that marriage with those Jews who were not “of
Central Asia” was not considered a Jewish marriage at all.
Just as Bukharan Jewish identity came to be equated with being of
the local space, so too did their religious practice become particular to
the Central Asian scene. This localization was an outgrowth of the ban
on religious practice during the Soviet era. In Central Asia, far from the
center of Communism, the Jews (like the Muslims) of the region, were
able to continue transmitting their religion, but only privately. Authori-
ties would turn a blind eye to religious observance as long as it was con-
ducted quietly and discreetly. Ritual experts, for example, continued to
slaughter meat throughout the Soviet era. However, there could be no
formalized manner to train new shoḥtim (ritual slaughterers), no insti-
tutionalized process for authorizing them, and no way to certify their
meat as kosher. It was only through informal and personal channels that
people determined who was a legitimate slaughterer and what was ko-
sher meat. The transmission of religious norms in other areas of life also
occurred informally and mimetically, rather than through the study of
abstract principles and texts in institutional settings. The result was the
development of a highly localized structure of religious authority, as well
as the emergence of religious practices that were peculiar to this local
community. For example, using inherited copper pots came to be under-
stood as integral to the process of matzah baking, and using different
hands for the two tasks involved in salting meat—one hand for apply-
ing the salt and the other hand for removing the meat from the water in
which it soaked—was understood as necessary to ensure that the meat
was kosher.
The tight links between local space, ritual practice, and Jewish identity
were further reinforced by Bukharan Jews’ demographic patterns. Low
mobility rates during the Soviet era coupled with low levels of intermar-
riage yielded a high rate of marriage among Bukharan Jews who lived
in the same city.
32
The result of this marriage pattern was the creation of
tight-knit Jewish communities, with few social ties outside of their re-
spective cities. Furthermore, because the Jewish population in each town
and city never exceeded several thousand, over the course of several de-
cades, the ties between neighbors and friends came to overlap strongly
Where Have All the Jews Gone? Mass Migration from Independent Uzbekistan · 215
with kinship ties. “We are all cousins here,” people often answered in
response to my questions about the relationships between them.
Ritual practice, then, which was so intimately linked to local space,
also became strongly connected to the articulation of kinship bonds. This
overlap between kin group, local space, and ritual practice was most
strongly articulated in the frequent memorial services that Bukharan
Jews hold in honor of the deceased. These services, held twenty-one
times during the first year after an individual dies, and once a year for
decades following a death, were generally conducted in the home where
the deceased had resided with his or her extended family. The services
included speeches in memory of the deceased, an elaborate meal, and
the recitation of evening and afternoon prayer services. The Soviets did
little to monitor or ban this mourning ritual. Taking place in the domestic
sphere, they were not subject to the same surveillance as those activities
that took place within institutional structures. As a result, despite the fact
that Soviets shut most of Central Asia’s synagogues, prayer services con-
tinued to be held throughout the twentieth century. In the domestic set-
ting, however, the obligation for daily prayer became deeply connected
to the memories of particular individuals and the honor of particular
families, rather than an experience that was part of an abstract and uni-
versal system of religious law.
33
In short, religious practice, Jewish identity, social relationships, and
place had become so strongly intertwined for Bukharan Jews that it was
hard to imagine one without all the others. Ironically, then, the prospect
of migrating to the United States or Israel—where Judaism can be prac-
ticed openly and without stigma—was linked to a fear that the trans-
mission of Jewish identity and practice might become impossible. The
decision to leave, therefore, was not a simple calculation: persecution and
marginalization as a Jew in Central Asia versus the freedom to be Jewish
without oppression. Rather, the calculation involved a careful consider-
ation of how to best negotiate the sudden tearing asunder of the links
between one’s identity, practice, kin group, community, and home.
Chain Migration
The fissures that ripped apart this complex relationship began to appear
in 1989, when migration restrictions were eased and the first Bukharan
Jews packed their bags and left. Like a heavy wind that begins to dislodge
216 · Alanna E. Cooper
a sturdy tree from the ground, their migration initiated the dramatic rup-
ture that would follow. When a man left with his wife, for example, her
sister might soon follow, and then that sister’s parents-in-law, then their
siblings, those siblings’ children, and so the chain of migration continued.
By the time I arrived in 1993, everyone I met had a child, parent, sibling,
or cousin in the United States or Israel.
Those who remained behind watched as the homes of their friends,
relatives, and neighbors were sold off, one by one, to Muslim families.
Mazal commented, “It’s terrible what has happened in [the Jewish ma-
hallah in] Bukhara in the last few years. It used to be that only Jews lived
here. . . . People would bring out benches and sit on the streets and talk.
Now people don’t know where they’ll be tomorrow.” Likewise, fifteen-
year-old Nelya told me nostalgically of the days when she and her friends
would roam freely through the narrow streets of Samarkand’s Jewish
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |