Chapter II. Different ways for developing pupils’ ability to read.
II.1 Some ways how to teach reading .
As above mentioned a student who starts studying method will be puzzled
by the variety of methods he may came across. In books an journals and of course
there are good grounds for this at different periods depending on the aims of teaching
and learning a foreign language new methods sprang up. In each case the method
received a certain name sometimes its name denoted logical categories for example;
a) the analytic method (analyse);
b) the syntax method (syntax);
c) the deductive method (deduction);
d) the inductive method (induction).
The most important factor in selecting a reading article is interest. Williams
(1986:42) claims that "in the absence of interesting texts, very little is possible."
Carrell (1984:339) states: "First, reading teachers should use materials the
students are interested in, including materials self-selected by the student." Nuttall
(1982:29), who refers to interest as "suitability of content," claims that having
texts that interest learners is more critical than either the linguistic level of the text
or its "exploitability" (see below).
Interest is important because of its relation to motivation. When the topic of a
passage is not of interest to students, their motivation to read is substantially
lessened. Without this motivation, it is exceedingly difficult to meet one of the
generally accepted aims of a reading program: to help get the learners to read in
English on their own, outside the reading classroom. [19;41]
As part of the effort to find interesting reading passages, Nuttall (1982:30)
recommends that the teacher attempt to discover if the passage will:
(i) tell the students things they don t already know; (ii) introduce them to new
and relevant ideas, make them think about things they haven't thought about
before; (iii) help them to understand the way other people feel or think (e.g.,
people with different backgrounds, problems, or attitudes from their own); (iv)
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make them want to read for themselves (to continue a story, find out more about a
subject, and soon).
In looking for readings that will interest their students, teachers should try to
find those that have a reasonable amount of new information. Too much new
information in a story makes it difficult to read, regardless of the interest level; a
passage that contains relatively little new information can be boring.
There are a number of approaches to determining learners interests,
including ranking and open-ended . A ranking questionnaire asks students to rank
their preferences; an open-ended questionnaire has students respond to such
questions as "What type of books do you read in your first language?" and "What
do you do on the weekend?" Nuttall (1982:29) suggests paying attention to the
materials students read in their first language. Williams (1986:42) recommends a
similar strategy; he also suggests asking learners to evaluate current reading
materials as "interesting," "all right," or "boring."
Exploitability
Exploitability, which Nuttall (1982:30 31) defines as the facilitation of
learning, is a key factor in selecting a reading passage. Simply put, will the
passage allow the teacher to accomplish the objectives of the reading lesson?
One way teachers can determine the exploitability of a passage is to do the
exercises and activities in the reading lesson. If, for example, one of the objectives
is to have students discover the author s point of view, the teacher could do that
activity to see if the reading passage allows the students to discover the author s
point of view. An article that is basically descriptive might not be amenable to that
type of activity.
Readability
The factor of readability ranks with interest and exploitability as one of the
most important considerations in selecting a reading passage. Carrell (1987b) uses
the term to refer to the following phenomena: syntactic appropriateness;
logical/rhetorical ordering of ideas; textual phenomena at the discourse level;
lexical appropriateness; and background knowledge of the reader. Nuttall (1982)
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reserves this term only for syntactic and lexical considerations. Readability is used
here to include the phenomena mentioned by Carrell, plus the length of the
passage.
Lexical Knowledge. Lexical knowledge and background knowledge are the
two most important elements that determine a text s readability. It is clear that as
the number of unknown lexical items in a reading passage increases, the more
difficult it is for students to read it with comprehension. However, lexical
knowledge is among the more controversial factors in selecting a reading passage.
Its controversial nature stems from two issues involved with lexical knowledge.
The first concerns how to determine the degree of difficulty of the vocabulary of a
reading passage. The second is the number of unknown words that is acceptable in
a reading passage.
One way of assessing students vocabulary is through the use of a scanning
exercise, whereby students identify in some fashion difficult or unknown words in
a passage. Over time, this will help teachers determine the lexical knowledge of
their learners. [19;28]
The second issue, how much new vocabulary should be in a reading passage,
depends at least partly on the type of reading program extensive or intensive and
also on the objectives of the reading lesson. Nuttall (1982:26) defines new lexical
items as words and idioms or compound phrases and recommends that in an
intensive reading lesson new lexical items should be less than three percent of the
whole. Nuttall cites Bright and McGregor's (1970:80) recommendation that a
passage should contain no new words because learners cannot respond completely
to unknown items. However, if one of the objectives of the lesson is to teach
learners to guess the meaning of unknown lexical items from the context, the
passage would have to include some unknown words and phrases. In general it is
recommended that the number of unknown lexical items be kept to a maximum of
no more than one or two words per page. This recommendation is based on the
premise that the purpose of the reading lesson is reading, not vocabulary
development.
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If the reading passage finally selected does contain new vocabulary items, the
teacher should consider their importance. That is, what value might be attached to
their being learned at the learners stage in the acquisition of the target language? If
the unknown lexical items are not important, it might be possible to substitute
items the learners already know.
These recommendations must take into account the students reading abilities. It
can be argued that at the beginning stages, and perhaps at the intermediate levels,
it may be advisable to maintain a minimum of new vocabulary items. For more
efficient readers, a higher percentage of new lexical items could be included in the
reading passage, since efficient readers, by definition, have learned either to guess
the meaning of unknown words or to ignore them. Finally, it might be difficult to
find authentic texts in which the quantity of unknown lexical items is very small.
Thus, the number of unknown vocabulary items in a reading passage is affected
by the students reading abilities, the goals of the reading course, and the objectives
of the particular le Background Knowledge. Along with lexical knowledge,
background (or world) knowledge is very important in the readability of a text.
The more readers know about a particular topic, the more quickly and accurately
they can read it. Research (e.g., Alderson and Urquhart 1988; Carrell 1987a;
Johnson 1981) has demonstrated that background knowledge plays a key role in
the comprehension of a reading passage by intermediate and advanced ESL
learners. Given its importance in these two stages, it might also be a critical factor
in the beginning stages. sson.
Since the background knowledge of EFL readers plays a critical role in their
comprehension of the passage, teachers should make sure that the passage is on a
topic that is known or familiar to their students. If the passage deals with an
unfamiliar topic, there are two possibilities; either it can be rejected or students
can be made familiar with the topic. The difficulty with the latter is that the more
time we spend teaching our students about the topic of the passage, the less time
there is to devote to the actual purpose of the reading class learning reading skills
and strategies.
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The factor of background knowledge in EFL reading texts may be seen as an
issue of course design. If one of the goals of the reading course or program is to
broaden the students knowledge of the English-speaking world, then having the
students read passages about the societies and cultures of English-speaking
countries would be appropriate. Time spent in the reading class expanding the
students knowledge on such topics would be meeting one of the goals of the
course. However, if increasing students knowledge of the English-speaking world
is not one of the goals of the reading course, the reading teacher might not care to
spend class time building up her students background knowledge of the English-
speaking world.
One way of treating the problem of background knowledge is to select
passages on three or four themes over the course of the reading program. This
issue is explored in detail later in this article.
Syntactic Appropriateness. Syntactic constructions in a passage affect its
readability. If a passage contains grammatical constructions that the learners do
not know, they might have a hard time reading it. Readability formulas are used
frequently in first-language reading, and less often in foreign- or second-language
reading, as a way of determining the level of syntactic complexity of a reading.
Carrell (1987b) provides an insightful summary of such formulas, and concludes
that readability formulas fail for a variety of reasons, including a failure to take
into account "the interactive nature of the reading process the interaction of the
reader with the text" (Carrell 1987b:32). Moreover, EFL reading teachers often do
not have the time, resources, or appropriate information to utilize readability
formulas, even if the formulas did what they are purported to do.
One way that EFL reading teachers can become better aware of the linguistic
strengths and weaknesses of their learners is to ask them. This could be done as
part of a scanning exercise, for example. Using an unfamiliar reading passage, the
students are instructed to scan it and underline syntactic constructions that are new
or difficult, or which they do not quickly recognize or understand. The teacher
analyzes the results to determine the types of syntactic constructions likely to
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cause problems. The more often this is done, the better is the reading teacher s
knowledge of students linguistic capabilities.
Organization. Organization refers to both the rhetorical organization of the text
and the clarity of the organization. Research (e.g., Carrell 1985) indicates that
ESL readers who can recognize the rhetorical organization of a text have better
comprehension than those who do not. While similar research has not been
conducted with EFL readers, we might expect parallel results. Therefore, the EFL
reading teacher should carefully examine a text to see how it is organized. A
passage that is not well organized might present problems for EFL students,
especially at the beginning stages.
Sometimes the method was named after the aspect of the language upon
which attention was focused as in the cases of the grammar method the lexical
method a phonetic method a third set of methods received their names from the skill.
Which was the main object of teaching in Academic lyceum among these are the
translation method the oral method. Sometimes the method got its name from the
psychology of language learning;
In this category the following names occur the intuitive method in conscious
method the direct method. Finally the method was sometimes named after its
inventor. These we find the Comenius method the Jocatot method the Gouin method
the Berlitz method the Palmer method.
In some cases the methods bear coupled names: they represent two sides of
teaching for example the learning aspect of the language and the skill the pupils
acquire or the name of the author and the language activity which is main aim in
teaching. It would be impracticable in a short chapter as this one give a classification
of methods all that one can hope to do is to select for comment those methods which
have had a long history and have influenced the contemporary methods of foreign
language teaching and live on them. This brief review will deal with:
1. The grammar translation method the oldest method of teaching foreign
languages which had its origin in Latin schools:
2. The direct method which began to be widely used in schools in the 1870
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3. Contemporary methods aims are the first and most important consideration in
any teaching. Hence the teacher should know exactly what his pupils are expected to
achieve in learning his subject what changes he can bring about in his pupils at the
end of the course at the end of the years term month week and each particular lesson
he should know the aims and objectives of foreign language teaching in academic
lyceum.
The changes the teacher must bring about in his pupils may be threefold:
practical-students acquire habits and skills in using a foreign language: educational –
the develop their mental abilities and intelligence in the process of learning the
foreign language; cultural-pupils extended their knowledge of the world in which
they live.
Therefore there are three aims at least which should be achieved in foreign
language teaching practical educational and cultural. The content of foreign
language teaching or what to teach is one of the main problems of the methods deals
with. In this research work an attempt it made to touch on the chief components
which we think should constitute the content of foreign language teaching in
academic lyceums a more detailed consideration will be given in appropriate
chapters dealing with teaching various aspects of the language and language skills.
The first component of “What to teach” is habits and skills which pupils should
acquire while learning a foreign language acceding to the aims of learning this
subject they are: hearing, spiking, reading and writing. To sum up what has been said
above, the content of foreign language teaching colures:
1. Language skills; hearing, speaking, reading and writing;
2. Language (textual) material;
3. Linguistic material; vocabulary, grammar, phonological minima
Methods of foreign language Teaching are based on the fundamental principles of
didactics; among them conscious approach to language. Learning, activity,
visualization and others. However in foreign language Teaching, due to the specific
features of the subject in which means and ends are equally essential, these
principles are used in a particular way.
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By teaching aids we means various devices which can help the foreign language
teacher in presenting linguistic material to his pupils and fixing it in their memory; in
testing pupils and fixing knowledge of words phrases and grammar items, their
habits and grant skills in using them.
Teaching aids which are at teachers disposal in contemporary lyceum may be
grouped into non- mechanical aids and mechanical aids.
The teacher can use the system of exercises for developing pupils ability to read
which may be done in two forms-loud and silent.
Reading aloud. In teaching reading aloud the following methods are observed;
the phonic the word and the sentence method is used, the child learn the sounds and
the sentence method is used, the child learn the sounds and associated them with
graphic symbols-betters, in the word method a complete word method a complete
word is first presented to the student when several words have been learnt they are
used is simple sentences as writs of approach in teaching and reading. The teacher
can develop pupils ability to read sentences with correct intonation later the
sentences are spilt up into words. [16;74]
Students are tough to associate the graphic symbols of words with their meaning
already learned orally. All the analysis are at work: visual auditory kinesthetic. The
leading role belongs to the visual analysis it is necessary that the graphic symbols of
words should be fixed in the pupil’s memory. In teaching English in lyceums
however little attention is given to this. Students are tough how “to sound” words
rather than “how to read” them. They often repeat words combination of words
without looking at what they read. They look at the teacher. The teacher does not
realize how much he hinders the formation of graphic images in the pupil’s memory
by teaching to read in this way.
Reading in chorus reading in groups in imitation of the teacher which is practiced
in lyceum form rather kinesthetic images than graphic ones. The result is that
student’s can sound the text but they cannot read. The teacher should observe the
rule never read words phrases sentences by yourself. Give your students a chance to
read them for instance in presenting the words and among them those which are read
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according to the rule the teacher should make his students read these words first. The
rule is often violated in lyceum. It is the teacher who first reads a word a column of
words a sentence a text and students just repeat after the teacher.
Teaching begins with presenting a letters to pupil’s or a combination of letters a
words as a grapheme. The use of flash cards and the black board is indispensable.
Flash cards when the teacher uses them allow him: a) to present a new letter b) to
make students compose a word for example p, n, l, they compose pen; c) to check
pupils knowledge of letters or graphemes ; d) to make students recollect the words
beginning with the letter shown e) to make students show the letter which stand for
the sound. When teaching reading the teacher needs a set of flash cards at hand. If
the teacher uses the blackboard instead he can write printed letters on it and pupils
can recollect the words they have learnt orally which have this or that letter compose
a word: The same devices are applied for teaching students to read words the talk
being different however : a) students choose words which are not read according to
the rule for example take –plane have-mike give – nine set- sit b) students are
invited to read the words which they usually misread: yet –let cold –could form-
from called –cold came- some . c) students are invited to look at the words and
name the letter which makes the words different : d) students in turn read column of
words following the key words. E) students invited to pick out the words with the
graphemes ou, ow, th. In teaching to read transcription is also utilized. It helps the
reader to read a word in the cases where the same grapheme stands for different
sounds: built-suit , or words which are not read according to the rule: aunt-colonel ,
in modern textbooks for the 10 transcription is not used. It is given in the textbook
for the 10
th
-11
th
forms students. All the exercises mentioned above are designed to
develop pupils ability to associate the graphic symbols with the phonic ones. The
structural – information exercises are done both in reading aloud in silent reading,
pupils are taught how to read sentences paragraphs text correctly. Special attention is
given to intonation since it is of great importance to the actual division of sentences
to stressing the logical predicate in them marking the text occasionally may be
helpful. At an early stage of teaching reading the teacher should read a sentence or a
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passage to the class himself. When is sure the students understand the passage he can
set individuals and the class to repeat the sentences after him reading again himself if
the pupils reading is poor. The students look into the textbook in symbols it can be
expressed like this: T-C-T-P-T-P-T-P-T-C T -teacher C – class P – pencil. This
kind of elementary reading practice should be carried on for limited number of
lessons only. When a class has advanced for enough to be ready for more
independent reading, reading in chores might be decreased but not eliminated: T-C-
P-P. When the students have learned to associate written symbols with the sounds
they stand for they should read a sentence or passage by themselves. In this way they
get a chance to make use of their knowledge of the rules of reading. It gives the
teacher an opportunity to see whether each of his students can read symbolically it
looks like this: P-P-T (S) S speaker if a tape recorder is used.
Reading aloud as a method of teaching and learning the language should take
place in all the forms. This is done with the aim of improving pupils reading skills.
The teachers determines what text and exercises students are to read aloud.
In reading aloud there fore the teacher uses:
a) diagnostic reading ( students read and he can see their weak points in reading) :
b) instructive reading ( students follow the pattern read by the teacher or the
speaker) c) control reading or test reading students read the text trying to keep as
done to the pattern as possible) It should be said that we need research activities of
the following types descriptive research which deals with what to teach experimental
and instrumental research is now needed which compares different combination of
devices various teaching aids. In conclusion we may say that much effort is being
expended on the development of more effective methods of foreign language
teaching and although practical results are not yet encouraging as one can judge from
different publications on methods one can hope that a scientific approaches to
foreign language teaching will bring considerable improvement. In conclusion it
should be said that practical educational and cultural aims are intimately related and
form an inseparable unity.
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The leading role belongs to practical aims for the others can only by achieved
through the practical command of the foreign language. In conclusion it should be
said that the content of teaching in our lyceum in laid down in the symbol and in the
teachers own speech.
Consequently, from the analysis of the didactic principle of the conscious
approach to foreign language teaching, we may formula a specific methodological
principles which reads.
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