I.2 Linguistic and extra linguistic difficulties in reading
Difficulties at word level are connected to skillsof decoding and word
identification, and involve problems in automatic recall, using phonic
knowledge and orthographic units within the word, and using analogy and the
context of the sentence or paragraph. Automatic recall enables readers to access
the word automatically from their sight vocabulary, while phonic knowledge
helps them to decode a word very quickly by associating the letters with
equivalent phonemes; after several encounters of the same word, usually 5 to 7, it
becomes part of sight vocabulary. However, beginning readers and children with
reading difficulties can have significant difficulties in word identification or in
retrieving words already stored in memory, i.e. word finding difficulty (WFD). If
children are not able to recognise words immediately, they experience problems with
reading. Struggling readers often cannot use the word recognition strategies rapidly,
or are not able to decode words with difficult (irregular) spelling patterns due to
poor phonic skills and ineffective decoding strategies. If they try decoding
letter-by-letter, they become very slow, thus “overloading their working memory
and imparing comprehension”. In such cases they depend on guessing words from
context or usingcues from pictures accompanying the text, which are not reliable
solutions and can result in inaccurate comprehension. [24;45]
A major reason of early difficulty of reading acquisition is the fact “that
phonology and orthography initially favour different grain sizes,” i.e.
phonology favours larger ones, while orthography favours smaller one, like letters.
As the child learns letters, he or she discovers phonemes represented by
individual letters and by letter clusters, the grapheme-phoneme relations
influencing his or her learning to read and causing difficulties in learning to
read in English as a language with rather inconsistent relationship between
reading and spelling. Therefore, “beginning readers have to learn additional
correspondences for larger orthographic units, such as syllables, rimes, or whole
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words [. . . while] to decode the most frequent 3,000 monosyllabic English words at
the level of the rime, a child needs to learn mappings between approximately
600 different orthographic patterns and 400 phonological rimes”. Since reading
fluency generally depends on efficient decoding, “children with weak decoding skills
are unlikely to become fluent readers” . To be able to decode words properly,
learners first need to develop their phonological awareness and to establish
their understanding of grapheme-phoneme correspondences, the skills whose
development should start at pre-school age . Yet, “over one-third of children
entering school lack phonemic awareness” and if they do not get specific training in
this skill they might develop reading difficulties stressed that “it is believed that very
many students with reading and spelling difficulties have poor phonological
awareness,” which prevents them from identifying unfamiliar words; without
phonological awareness children cannot master phonic decoding skills, necessary for
spelling and identifying unfamiliar words .
Moreover, phonological weaknesses account for most severe reading
difficulties, which can also be caused by “limited vocabulary knowledge,
deficits in working memory, and problems with rapid retrieval of letter-sound
correspondences and words from memory” .
Difficulties for L2 learners can be the result of “transfer effects from
language processing differences”. Grabe mentioned a number of negative transfer
effects: false cognates or near cognates, which can interfere with vocabulary
recognition; influence of learners’ L1 syntactic knowledge, like word order, relative
clause formation, noun phrase structures and other complex structures, which
may “mislead the EFL/ESL reader, particularly at beginning stages” ; orthographic
differences between the learners’ L1 and English can cause difficulties, especially
with beginning readers whose L1 has shallow orthography, i.e. very regular
correspondence between sounds and letters, like Serbian, English orthography being
deep, with very irregular correspondence between sounds and letters, though
“orthographic transparency differences do not appear to lead to different fluent
reading strategies”. Since beginning readers may try to transfer their L1
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reading knowledge, skills and strategies to L2 reading, Serbian learners of
English as a foreign language may try to use their L1 pronunciation patterns, which
are regular, in reading in English, which may result in their making many
errors, reading slowly and not comprehending accurately. Research has shown that
two different strategies used in reading depending on orthographic depth – sublexical
(alphabetic) and lexical (whole word) – cause two different types of errors: using the
lexical strategy in reading “leads readers, when they make errors, to respond with
real words based on shared letters or partial visual overlap with the target word, for
example, responding ‘near’ for the word ‘never’,” while sublexical strategy
“leads to errors with high phoneme overlap with the target word, even when
that means producing non-words” at the expense of lexicalit .
Considering the fact that Serbian young learners tend to apply sublexical
strategy in their L1 reading, the errors that might appear in their reading in English
as a foreign language would result from their tendency to use the sublexical
strategy instead of the more appropriate lexical one, i.e. they would probably
sound out newwords applying the learned letter-sound correspondences, instead of
responding with a real word similar to the target one. Moreover, the reading
problems of Serbian beginning readers “are more likely to involve reading rates and
poor spelling,” and less likely to involve phonological decoding or
phonological awareness .
To sum up, without acquisition of functional decoding skills children
cannot build sight vocabulary or achieve fluency in word identification by
combining groups of letters and blending them into words. Identification of words is
“the most basic but indispensible first step toward reading connected text with
understanding,” and if it is done rapidly, it “releases the reader’s cognitive abilities
to concentrate fully on the meaning of the material being read and his or her
response to it” . Obviously, L2 reading development is influenced by a learner’s
L1 literacy skills and L1 orthography, which “may help explain possible L2
difficulties in word recognition, fluency and reading rate”. Reading difficulties
at word level inevitably negatively affect reading comprehension skills, causing
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difficulties at text level and affecting comprehension. The next our research will deal
with difficulties in reading comprehension and explains the causes of
comprehension problems children may experience in early EFL reading.
Difficulties
at text level refer to comprehension difficulties resulting from limited
vocabulary knowledge, lack of fluency, lack of familiarity with the subject matter,
difficulty of the text (readability), inadequate use of effective reading strategies,
weak verbal reasoning, problems with processing information, and problems in
recalling information after reading (Westwood, 2008). Interestingly, there is no
evidence that direction-of-reading or punctuation and spacing can cause much
difficulty . [16;77]
Since comprehension depends on the ability of the reader to integrate the
meaning of words and sentences into a meaningful whole by constructing a mental
model of the text, i.e. mental representation, also termed ‘situation model’, by
drawing on his or her lexical and background knowledge, Oakhill, Cain and
Elbro contend that children can experience three different forms of reading
difficulties: 1. general poor comprehnsion, manifested as poor word reading and
poor language comprehension; 2. specific word reading problems, i.e. dyslexia,
manifested as poor word reading, but good language comprehension; 3.
specific comprehension problems, manifested as good word reading, but poor
language comprehension. It is obvious that problems with one component, i.e.
word reading or language comprehension, may occur independently of problems
with the other component, resulting in the pattern termed ‘double dissociation
term the three groups of readers experiencing these three problems as ‘generally poor
readers’, ‘children with dyslexia’, and ‘poor comprehenders’.
Generally poor readers can be the children who have experienced early
language impairments, while poor comprehenders, i.e. children with specific reading
comprehension problems, are usually not detected before the 3rd or 4th year of
schooling, when a sudden drop of their reading abilities becomes apparent .
Children with reading comprehension problems do not usually have problems
remembering factual information from the text, but find it very difficult “to integrate
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information from different parts of the text” or “to integrate information in the text
with their knowledge of the world,” and to predict what might happen in the story
and how it might end .
When reading, children are required to make local cohesion
inferences, which link lexical items, and global coherence inferences, which
connect parts of the text and assist in making a mental model of the text. However,
some studies demonstrated that “young children have the potential to make a range
of inferences, but they do not always do so, even when prompted by explicit
questions”. Three factors influence children’s inference making ability: 1.
memory; 2. knowledge; 3. personal standard for coherence. Due to poor memory,
lack of knowledge and low standard of cohenrence, children may experience
difficulties in inference making, resulting in poor text comprehension . If a child has
poor memory, he or she cannot make enough necessary inferences because he or she
cannot remember many details on which inferencing depends, like explicit
information in the text. Moreover, if a child possesses limited knowledge of
vocabulary or of the world related to the topic of the text, a child will
experience difficulties in making necessary inferences. Lack of word and world
knowledge may result in comprehension difficulties especially when children are
faced with ambiguous words, i.e. the words that have more than one, often
unrelated, meaning, and when the intended meaning of such a word must be
worked out from the context and from the meanings of other words in the text. In
such cases, “[t]he resolution of ambiguous words provides a good example of the
interactive nature of text comprehension: the reader’s current mental model can
provide the context for the interpretation of such words, and that is what would
typically happen in normal skilled reading”. It is clear that depth of vocabulary
knowledge, including relations and associations between words, is critical for
reading comprehension and closely related to it, or as Oakhill put it, “it is less
beneficial to comprehension to know lots of words at more superficial levels” than to
have “a relatively deep understanding of words”. The importance of vocabulary
knowledge to reading comprehension increases between the ages 7 and 10 as
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children become better decoders and the reading texts children have to read become
more challenging . Vocabulary difficulties and reading comprehension can be
interrelated in a way that poor comprehension limits the growth of vocabulary,
while further reasons of reading comprehension difficulties may be related to
vocabulary knowledge beyond single words, like fixed expressions, common
sayings, or idioms whose meaning, literal or figurative, depends on the
context, where inference skills become crucial for inferring the intended meanings
from the context.
The main reasons may be the use of superficial cues for pronoun
interpretation, or poor working memory that does not foster creation of the
mental model of text information. Moreover, studies suggest that poor
comprehenders are not fully aware of the functions of connectives or of their
meaningsThe text structure plays a significant role in determining reading
comprehension: although children are usually familiar with typical structure of
fictional narratives, poor comprehenders “appear to be less knowledgeable
about how narratives work”. Children with reading comprehension difficulties find
it difficult to distinguish between statements that refer to settings, characters and the
purpose of the story, a possible reason being problems with memory .
Children’s ability to monitor their comprehension and conclude if the
text makes sense is a strategic competence needed for detecting
misinterpretation or failure in comprehension. [16;74]
When reading a text and seeing it does not make sense, skilled readers “can
engage in remedial action to insure good comprehension [by] looking up an
unknown word in a dictionary, re-reading a section of a text that does not make
sense, and even generating an inference to enable integration between two
propositions”.A child’s ability to monitor their own comprehension is
manifested in her or his ability to differentiate between the texts that are coherent
and those that are not, and in the ability to identify the part of the text that does not
make sense. Studies have shown children’s early monitoring abilities, even at the
age of 5, but “young children and children with reading difficulties,
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particularly those with specific reading comprehension problems, often fail to
monitor their comprehension adequately” mostly due to memory limitations, lack of
familiarity with the topic, and failure to set the task goal .
Reading comprehension can function on three levels: literal
comprehension is the basic level at which the reader understands factual
information; inferential level of understanding involves inferring details that are
not explicitly stated in the text; critical level of comprehension takes place when
the reader evaluates the text and the writer’s ideas, compares and contrasts the
information . Weak readers “have enormous difficulty progressing beyond a literal
level of comprehension because most of their cognitive effort is taken up in
unlocking the print” . While good comprehenders and effective readers use a
number of cognitive skills as they read (visualising scenes, actions and
characters in a narrative text, reflecting critically, questioning, monitoring
understanding, evaluating, predicting, inferring, and summarising), poor
comprehenders and ineffective readers do not interact cognitively with the
information, do not think deeply, do not check or monitor understanding, do
not read critically, or use effective strategies to aid comprehension. [16;14]
On the contrary, being inexperienced readers, children do not possess
knowledge related to a variety of text organisation and may find understanding
different text/discourse structures difficult. Also, children’s experience with oral
language does not prepare them for understanding the organisation of paragraphs as
discourse unites, nor does it give them the skills of analysing topic sentences. What
is more, the first texts children read are too short to be organised in paragraphs, so
that they can learn about paragraphs and discourse organisation once they start
reading longer texts. In respect to certain grammatical structures that children learn
in written texts, rather than in spoken language, it is often the case that such new
grammar patterns may appear confusing and problematic for children.
Cameron argues that “without the support that comes from recognising the
syntactic patterns, early readers have to work on each word as a separate unit,
working out what it is and storing it in memory while the next word is tackled,”
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whichcan be inefficient as “memory spans are limited, and words can drop out of
short term memory before the child gets to the end of the sentence and has a chance
to work out the meaning of the whole”. Consequently, beginning readers’ inability
to integrate text information from different levels, and their inadequate
experience with different types of discourse, may result in comprehension
difficulties at text level.
Miscue analysis has contributed to understanding of some general
characteristics of comprehension process in relation to text length: it is easier
to understand long language sequences than short ones, i.e. “sentences are
easier than words, paragraphs easier than sentences, pages easier than
paragraphs, and stories easier than pages” . Goodman explain that one reason for
this is the need of the reader to become familiar with the style and the topic of the
text, and when the text is short there are not enough syntactic (style) and semantic
(topic) cues for the reader to rely on; another reason is the fact that miscuesare more
disruptive in a short text, while a long text gives the reader more opportunities to
self-correct. Miscue analysis can be used for determining the reader’s
‘comprehending score’, which is represented by all miscues which result in
acceptable meaning added to all miscues which result in unacceptable meaning, but
are corrected by the reader successfully, and expresses as a percentage of all
miscues; it is a measure of the quality of the reader's miscues, as it is not
important how many miscues a reader has made, but how they affect the
meaning, and of “the reader's ability to keep his focus successfully on
meaning” . Goodman distinguishes between high quality miscues anfd low
quality miscues: the former are semantically and syntactically acceptable and do
not interfere with comprehension, while the latter are not are semantically and
syntactically acceptable and they interfere with comprehension.
The study has yielded useful information regarding the reading
difficultes experienced by young learners in Serbian primary schools, the children’s
patterns of reading strategy use, and other individual and contextual factors that
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affect their reading skills. It must be acknowledged, however, that the study
has several limitations.
First, the most important limitation lies in designing the framework
scope of the research. Reading skills, and reading difficulties as well, are too
complex to be the theme of one dissertation.
Second, literature suggests that any reading research should involve
measures of listening comprehension because with beginning readers it is not
always possible to distinguish between their word reading problems and
comprehension problems, and in such cases the solution is to assess word
reading separately and to check language comprehension by assessing their
listening comprehension in order to see if they can make inferences necessary for
understanding the text, which has not been included in this research study.
Third, although think-aloud interviews allowed us to examine what was
going on in a reader’s mind while she or he was performing a reading task,
we must bear in mind that this technique cannot reveal the thinking processes in full.
Fourth, the present study has only investigated reading skills of
learners attending relatively big urban schools, without involving any small or
village school, thus not fully representing the population. There are two
reasons for this: first, village schools are mostly branches of the nearest
town/city schools, comprising only the classes of Grades 1-4, and the children are
supposed to transfer to a town/city school to continue primary education; second,
eight-year primary schools are rare in a village setting, and usually have one
or two classes of Grade 5 and with fewer children than city schools.
Involving village schools in our survey would have slowed the procedure of data
collection and increase the costs of the study. [16;76]
As our data represent a convenience sample, we cannot claim
generalizability across countries due to the fact that the respective wider
environments may vary considerably.
Reading outcomes may be significantly affected by a number of contextual
factors, limiting the generalizability of the results of the present study. What can be
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generalized, though, is the evidence that out-of-school factors, i.e. school
environment and teachers, out-of-school exposure and home related factors,
must be considered together with individual factors as variables significant for
L2 linguistic achievement. Consequently, the findings of the present study could
contribute to English language teaching in Serbian primary schools and other
EFL/ESL contexts, both similar and different. Moreover, we believe that it could be
the basis for further studies of young learners’ early reading abilities.
Among the many definitions of reading that have arisen in recent decades,
three prominent ideas emerge as most critical for understanding what "learning to
read" means:
Reading is a process undertaken to reduce uncertainty about meanings a text
conveys.
The process results from a negotiation of meaning between the text and its
reader.
The knowledge, expectations, and strategies a reader uses to uncover textual
meaning all play decisive roles way the reader negotiates with the text's meaning.
Reading does not draw on one kind of cognitive skill, nor does it have a
straightforward outcome—most texts are understood in different ways by different
readers.
Background Knowledge
For foreign language learners to read, they have to be prepared to use various
abilities and strategies they already possess from their reading experiences in their
native language. They will need the knowledge they possess to help orient
themselves in the many dimensions of language implicated in any text.
Researchers have established that the act of reading is a non-linear process that is
recursive and context-dependent. Readers tend to jump ahead or go back to
different segments of the text, depending on what they are reading to find out.
Goals
Asking a learner to "read" a text requires that teachers specify a reading goal.
One minimal goal is to ask the learner to find particular grammatical constructions
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or to identify words that relate to particular features or topics of the reading. But
such goals are always only partial. For example, a text also reveals a lot about the
readers for which it is written and a lot about subject matter that foreign language
learners may or may not know or anticipate.
he curriculum described here is called a holistic curriculum, following Miller
(1996). Holistic education is concerned with connections in human experience—
connections between mind and body, between linear thinking and intuitive ways
of knowing, between academic disciplines, between the individual and the
community.
A holistic curriculum emphasizes how the parts of a whole relate to each
other to form the whole. From this perspective, reading relates to speaking,
writing, listening comprehension, and culture.
Pedagogical Stages of Reading
Ideally, each text used in such a curriculum should be pedagogically staged
so that learners approach it by moving from pre-reading, through initial reading,
and into rereading. This sequence carefully moves the learner from
comprehension tasks to production tasks. In addition, these tasks should build
upon each other in terms of increasing cognitive difficulty.
Pre-Reading: The initial levels of learning, as described in Bloom's
Taxonomy, involve recognizing and comprehending features of a text. As
proposed here, pre-reading tasks involve speaking, reading, and listening.
Initial Reading: Initial reading tasks orient the learner to the text and activate
the cognitive resources that are associated with the learner's own expectations. For
example, discussions of genres and stereotypes may help the learner to identify
potential reading difficulties and to strategize ways to overcome these challenges.
Simple oral and written reproduction tasks should precede more complex
production tasks that call for considering creative thinking about several issues at
the same time.
Rereading: In rereading, the learner is encouraged to engage in active L2
production such as verbal or written analysis and argumentation. These activities
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require longer and more complex discourse. At this point, the language learners'
critical thinking needs to interact with their general knowledge. Ideally, cultural
context and the individual foreign language learner's own identity emerge as
central to all acts of production.
When the stages of reading are repeated over the course of a semester or year,
learners tend to improve not only their language skills, but also their cultural
literacy. Multiple stages in reading engage the learners by returning to the
language of the text from different points of view. A curriculum built around such
stages is considered holistic if they involve practice that integrates language
various kinds of language acquisition and fills multiple cognitive demands in
interlocking activities that spiral learning. For example, a pre-reading for sub-
topics of a subject, an initial reading to identify how topics are described, and a
rereading to modify those descriptions by inserting them into a new genre or
describing them for a different audience. [16;71]
Readability and the Holistic Approach
Teachers should assess whether the texts they assign are appropriately
readable for their students. But how to measure readability? In the holistic
approach advocated here, readability is not a static property of a given text.
Instead, readability is determined by three characteristics: the suitability of the text
for the readers' background, their language, and the instructor's curricular goals.
In general, a text is more readable when:
it presents concrete issues rather than abstract ones
it provides the "who," "what," "where," and "when" familiar to the reader
it is age-appropriate
it is in a genre familiar to the reader
it is acceptable to the reader's cultural background
it is longer, with context clues, or it is a short text on a familiar topic
Sometimes, the readability of a text can be enhanced if a missing piece of
background knowledge about the text's culture is provided. The reader needs to
know about contextual elements that most authentic texts assume their readership
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knows. Sometimes the missing element is a historical or social fact, sometimes it
can be a fact that looks like a social stereotype.
The concept "horizons of expectation" is attributed to Hans Robert Jauss,
who used the term when illustrating ways in which textual features reflect a broad
consensus about a given genre's style, content, and organizational structures; and
to argue that these features suggest assumptions shared among a group of readers.
When the literatures and cultures of the foreign languages studied reflect horizons
of expectation with which the language learner is unfamiliar, misreadings often
result.
Overall, readability and reading goals need to be set vis-à-vis the reader, not
as a property of the text in its own right. And through reading an accessible
authentic text, the reader is also likely to confront the stereotypes about a culture
as well as those held by that culture. By learning to recognize ways authentic
media reflect particular viewpoints, readers begin to engage in the practice of
multi-literacies—explorations of self and other.
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