participate in vulgar magic; in Ficino’s astral magic daemons are morally
neutral;
151
however, whenever he makes reference to worshipped dae-
mons he means demons in the Christian sense. If it entails worship,
then it is illicit and necessarily demonic. Ficino, in this, accepts the view
of Aquinas in Summa theologica, as noted earlier, regarding the Hermetic
statues:
But I think, in the first place, in accordance with the opinion of the
blessed Thomas [Aquinas] that if they made speaking statues at all, it
was not the mere influence of the stars itself that formed the words
within, but daemons. Secondly, if by chance it happened that these
daemons did enter into statues of this kind, I think they were not
bound there by celestial influence but rather deliberately indulged
their worshippers, intending to deceive them in the end.
152
Accordingly, Ficino denounces in his Apology ceremonial devotional
magic that operates by means of rituals and ceremonies to attract decep-
tive daemons. These daemons correspond with the wicked daemons
who reside in the humid sphere considered as devils by Calcidius,
William of Conches and Bernard Silvestris.
In contrast, Ficino condones natural/astral magic which is ‘practised
by those who seasonably subject natural materials to natural causes to
be formed in a wondrous way’. The daemons operating here are higher
ones who are closer to the celestial bodies and therefore their operations
are emanative, orderly, untainted and astral.
153
The works of Ficino represent the celestial daemons as the active
agents of stars and planets similar to the Arabic ruhaniyyat: their duties
conform to and carry out the functions of the heavenly bodies. Since
the planets have a twofold function, semiological and aetiological, the
daemons act by inspiring intellect to perceive the signs, and also by
performing their role as agents of generation.
So the spiritual fabric of Ficino’s universe is intricate; it is inhabited
by celestial souls and daemons, stars and spirits. The divine and the
astral are enmeshed in the natural. Pico della Mirandola, who accepts
the existence of celestial souls and intellects,
154
may have been inspired
by Ficino when he wrote in the Conclusions that ‘the names of the gods
194
The Arabic Influences on Early Modern Occult Philosophy
that Orpheus sings are not the names of deceiving demons, from whom
evil and not good comes, but of natural and divine powers distributed
in the world by the true God for the great utility of man – if he knows
how to use them’.
155
We know that John Dee read with care the pas-
sages in the argumentum of Ficino’s translations of Plato concerning the
daemons, celestial intelligence, their introduction into statues, and the
inspirational nature of human’s contact with them. These are aspects
that would have encouraged Dee to pursue his angelic/spiritual pursuits
in the 1580s.
156
So, on another level, the syncretic occult philosophy elucidated here
even challenges the natural vs. demonic dichotomy. Spiritual agency
is often ascribed to demons and angels. As a result, celestial souls and
daemons as vital agents – expressed in terms of astral causation and the
Neoplatonic and Platonic animated universe – are often overlooked. The
daemons specifically are the vital and active agents of the celestial souls,
bringing heaven to earth and earth to heaven. Generally, ignoring the
reconciliation between physicality and psychology, encapsulated in the
concept of the daemon, has led some historians of magic to structure
their arguments according to two divisions: physical therefore ratio-
nal and natural magic – set against or comparable to ‘science’ – and
demonic magic and superstitions – generally set against or comparable
to religion.
157
This occurs even in histories suspicious of the term ‘ratio-
nality’ and/or those which adopt relativistic views.
158
Even though, as
we have seen, natural philosophers and occultists perceived astrology
and astral/natural magic to be branches of natural philosophy, they were
aware of the need to exonerate them from supernatural/demonic asso-
ciations. Therefore, their discussions concerning astrology and astral
magic sometimes had a defensive tone; however, this never really
amounts to a participation in an explicit ‘rival culture’,
159
and the
apologetic statements did not occupy a large enough space to imply
a deep defensive anxiety. The notions of cosmic vitality and animation
were defined according to both Neoplatonic and Aristotelian dictates
pertaining to emanation and motion. Therefore, occult philosophy rec-
onciled physicality and psychology. Post-Enlightenment paradigms of
‘rationality’ and science exclude the essential notion of an animated
universe and vital macrocosm, and push discussions on spirit to reli-
gion and superstition, creating sharply opposing fields of enquiry; this
is something that that ‘the daemon’ challenges.
Conclusion
Early modern occult philosophy approaches a phenomenon, natural,
astrological or magical, as a co-presence of different yet interrelated real-
ities. The senses present the external level of the occurrence, its physical
contours and possibilities. On its own it is inadequate as it does not iden-
tify the various and simultaneous modes of appearance that give it unity
and particularity. Reason and imagination connect the different sides of
reality together by way of reference beginning from the physical mani-
festation. This pulling together of sides includes ontological, aetiological
and teleological aspects not immediately available to the senses. How-
ever, inspiration and intuition engage the intellectual soul in reflection
and only then is the significance of the event realized. The experience
is no longer restricted to the moment of appearance but it is referred to
a larger network of meanings, particular, universal, cosmic, psychic and
divine. As Agrippa declares in his Three Books of Occult Philosophy:
Neither think it sufficient that you stay about particulars, but bend
your mind confidently to universals; for by so much the more learned
anyone is thought, by how much fewer things he is ignorant of.
Moreover, your wit is fully apt to all things, and to be rationally
employed, not in a few, or low things, but many, and sublime.
1
Consequently, early modern occult epistemology comprises the knowl-
edge of causes, signs and spirits.
This present study highlighted the contextual developments that
directly determined the ways in which the Arabic theories concerned
with astral causation and generation were appropriated and recondi-
tioned on the Continent and in England from the twelfth century to
the sixteenth.
195
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