The Invisible Constitution in Comparative Perspective



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The Invisible Constitution in Comparative Perspective by Rosalind Dixon (editor), Adrienne Stone (editor) (z-lib.org)

Rosalind Dixon and Adrienne Stone

broader sense. Goldsworthy argues that written constitutions should be inter-

preted by reference to both the original public meaning of the text and a 

principle or presumption of expressio unius – i.e., a principle that no other 

norms are to be inferred under the constitution that do not find express textual 

recognition in the text of the constitution. This means that all freestanding or 

‘fabricated’ implications must in some way be logically necessary to give effect 

to the text of the constitution itself, not simply practically useful or conducive 

to the effective operation of the structures created by the text. Solum takes 

a similar view, and endorses implications that are logically necessary to the 

text, as consistent with an originalist methodology. But he also goes somewhat 

further than Goldsworthy, in allowing for the possibility of legitimate forms of 

implication as part of the process of constructional choice. From an originalist 

standpoint, he suggests, even reference to contemporary extra-constitutional 

sources may be legitimate in contexts where the original communicative 

meaning of the constitution is indeterminate or where the text ‘underdeter-

mines the content of constitutional law’. Extra-territorial influences of this 

kind may be unbounded by the text of the constitution, but it may still be 

sufficiently consistent with the text to be accepted by many originalists.

In a Korean context, Kim provides a more outcome-specific critique of the 

reliance by the Constitutional Court of Korea (KCC) on the notion of an 

invisible or ‘customary’ constitution.

22

 The KCC, in the Capital Relocation 



Case, held that the longstanding status of Seoul as the national capital cre-

ated a ‘customary’ constitutional norm regarding the capital’s location 

which could only be altered by way of a national referendum.

23

 This, Kim 



argues, was also problematic in a number of respects: it involved the KCC 

intervening in a highly contentious political case or entering the ‘political 

thicket’ without clear textual or other justification and in ways that argua-

bly impeded rather than advanced the cause of democratic reform in Korea.  

Further, in relying on such a principle, Kim argues that the KCC did not 

articulate a persuasive account of what kinds of practices were sufficient to 

create a customary constitutional norm of this kind or of why it was appro-

priate to treat informal customary constitutional norms as fully equivalent 

to formally entrenched, written norms for the purposes of processes of con-

stitutional change. In other cases, in contrast, Kim argues that reliance by 

the KCC on extra-textual constitutional sources arguably helped advance 

democracy: it allowed the KCC to avoid the threat to democracy posed by 

22 

Kim (Chapter 



11

) at 15–24.

23 

Case NO.: 2004Hun-Ma554, KCCR : 16-2(B) KCCR 1, 



http://english.ccourt.go.kr/cckhome/

eng/decisions/social/socialDetail.do




 

The Invisible Constitution in Comparative Perspective 

13

the potential impeachment of President Roh



24

 and to increase pressure on the 

electoral system to give greater respect to principles of one person, one vote 

or equality of voting power.

25

 In the Indonesian context, Butt (Chapter 



10

offers a more modest normative critique of the Indonesian Court’s approach 



to constitutional implications. He criticises the reasoning of the Indonesian 

Constitutional Court in its series of decisions implying various criminal due 

process rights as implicit in the concept of ‘Negara Hokum’ (rule of law) found 

in the founding values of the Constitution. He suggests that norms of trans-

parency and public reason-giving are important requirements of judicial legit-

imacy in all cases, but particularly strong demands on courts in an Indonesian 

context: he notes the long history of deliberate ideological manipulation of 

the idea of ‘Negara Hokum’ in Indonesia and the argument this provides for 

a more principled, non-ideological elaboration of the ideal by the current 

court. He also notes the pervasive history of judicial corruption which argua-

bly places the onus on the court to articulate a principled justification for its 

decisions in ways that rebut any appearance of corruption as an influence on 

constitutional decision-making.

Conversely, other contributors offer a partial or qualified normative 

defence of aspects of extra-textual constitutional influence on practices of 

constitutional decision-making or practice in various jurisdictions. Spigno, 

for example, defends the practice of reading-in or ‘additive judgments’ in the 

jurisprudence of the Italian Constitutional Court as normatively legitimate, 

based on the indirect textual authorisation for such a practice in the guaran-

tee of equality in Art 3 of the Italian Constitution and limits she identifies as 

implicit in the actual practice or implementation of the doctrine – i.e., the 

unwillingness of the court to deploy the doctrine where there are multiple 

different ways of remedying a constitutional equality violation, where it would 

be contrary to the relevant legislative purpose or context (or what she describes 

as certain set legislative ‘rhymes’) or where it is inconsistent with the relevant 

subject-matter (e.g., the criminal nature of proceedings).

Carolan, in turn, defends the relationship between the visible and invis-

ible constitution in Ireland as a valuable source of constitutional stability: 

‘connecting the Constitution to broad normative principles, the content of 

which are not made explicit’, Carolan argues, ‘provides a means of publicly 

declaring the systems goodness will nonetheless preserving a politically nec-

essary space for moral contestation’. Where the Constitution was originally a 

quite direct bridge between natural law ideas about compassion and charity,  

24 


Kim (Chapter 

11

) at 25–30.



25 

Kim (Chapter 

11

) at 30–4.




14 


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