LEARNING
Animals seem sensitive to relationships among probabilities, but this is not because they’re
tracking the probabilities directly. Instead, animals develop expectations about upcoming events
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and adjust their expectations whenever events surprise them. In this way, the expectations are
gradually adjusted until they are accurately in tune with probabilities in the environment. The
role of surprise is directly evident in the blocking effect.
The empiricist philosophers argued that learning involves the forming of simple
associations. More complex learning just involves a great many associations, each layered upon
the others. From this perspective, all learning depends on the same mechanisms, and so all
learning should be governed by
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