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actual sequences.
E.g.: He started laughing. In this sentence we
can point out syntagmatic, or linear relations between the sounds
[h+i:] = [hi:]; [s+t+a:+t+i+d] = [sta:tid]; etc.; the morphemes are
also connected syntagmatically within words: start+ed = started;
laugh+ing = laughing; the combinations of words form syntagmas
within phrases and sentences: He + started; started + laughing.
Besides, the sentence can be connected with other sentences by
syntagmatic relations in the process of communication, in speech,
e.g.: He started laughing. Everybody thought it was rather odd.
The term ―syntagmatic relations‖ is derived from the word
―
syntagma‖, i.e. a linear combination of units of the same level.
There are four main types of notional syntagmas:
predicative (the combination of a subject and a predicate),
objective (the combination of a verb and its object),
attributive
(the combination of a noun and its attribute),
adverbial (the
combination of a modified notional word, such as a verb,
adjective,
or adverb, with its adverbial modifier).
Since these relations can be observed in actual utterances,
they are also defined by the Latin term ―in praesentia‖ (―in the
presence‖, present in the same sequence).
In real speech in one and the same utterance different types
of syntagmatic relations are realized, depending on the speaker‘s
intention and communicative purpose.
The other type of relations, opposed to syntagmatic, are
called
paradigmatic. The term is derived from the word
―paradigm‖ and denotes the relations between elements in
paradigms in the system of language. Ferdinand de Saussure
called these relations ‗associative relations‘, implying the way
different linguistic units are arranged and associated with each
other in human minds. Classical grammatical paradigms are those
making up grammatical categories of words, or, morphological
categories,
e.g., the category of number or case of the noun: in
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Paradigmatic relations exist not only in grammar, but in
the phonetical and lexical systems of language as well. For
example, paradigmatic relations exist between vowels and
consonants, voiced and voiceless consonants, etc.; between
synonyms and antonyms, in topical groups of words, word-
building models, etc. But paradigmatic relations are of primary
importance for grammar, as the grammar of language is above all
systemic.
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