The
proximity (contiguity)
may be revealed:
6.
In the relations between the instrument and the action performed with this instrument.
1. “His pen is rather sharp
.”
2. “
The pen is mightier than the sword.
”
7.
which In the relation between the container and the thing it contains.
2.
“
He drankone more cup.”
2. “The hall applauded.”
8.
In the relation where the concrete is put for the abstract. As in the example the word
power
is replaced by
camp, pulpit.
“The camp, the pulpit and the law
For rich men’s sons are free”
(Percy Bysshe Shelley)
9.
In the relation where the material instead of the thing made of it.
1.“
The marble spoke.”
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2.“He went about her room, after his introduction, looking at her pictures, her bronzes
and clays, asking after the creator of this, the painter of that, where a third thing came
from.” (Theodor Dreiser)
10.
In the relation where a part is put for the whole. This relation is also called
synecdoche
.
“Then they came in. Two of them, a man with long fair moustaches and a silent dark
man…Definitely, the moustache and I had nothing in common.”(Doris Lessing)
Functions of metonymy. Metonymy represents the events of reality in its subjective
attitude. Generally, metonymy is used in developing literary symbolism i.e. it gives more
profound meanings to otherwise common ideas and objects. By using metonymy, texts
exhibit deeper or hidden meanings and thus drawing readers’ attention. In addition, the
use of metonymy helps achieve conciseness.
Irony
comes from the Greek word
eirōneía
, meaning ‘slight mockery’.
Irony is based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings - dictionary and
contextual, but the two meanings are in opposition to each other. The literal meaning is the
opposite of the intended meaning, that is why irony is based on the opposition of what is
said to what is meant.
1.“It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s
pocket.”
2. "What a fine musician you turned out to be!,"
3. "It's like you're a whole different person now...,"
Functions of irony. Irony is often used in literature to produce a comic effect. This
may also be combined with satire. An author may facetiously state something as a well-
known fact and then demonstrate through the narrative that the fact is untrue.
A fair amount of confusion has surrounded the issue of the relationship between
verbal irony and sarcasm.
Sarcasm
is originally derived from Greek word
sarkasmos
that means ‘tear flesh’.
Somehow, in simple words it means to speak bitterly.
Sarcasm is a sharp, bitter, or cutting expression or remark; a bitter gibe or taunt. The
sarcastic content of a statement will be dependent upon the context in which it appears. In
sarcasm, ridicule or mockery is used harshly, often crudely and contemptuously, for
destructive purposes.
1."Oh... Well then thanks for all the first aid over the years!"
2. "You couldn't play one piece correctly if you had two assistants."
3. “Good fences make good neighbors.”(
Robert Frost
)
The last example taken from the work
“Mending walls”
points out in a sarcastic
way two neighbors who have made a wall between them. However this wall falls apart
every winter, therefore the neighbors meet and mend this wall, hence they spend more time
together in this way.
85
The distinctive quality of sarcasm is present in the spoken word and manifested
chiefly by vocal inflection.
Functions of sarcasm. In most of the cases, it is utilized as a mask or scathe. Others
use it as a defensive mechanism. It is used when bitterness is hard to express in a pleasant
way or it is objective to say something without hurting somebody directly. The basic
purpose of sarcasm in literary works is to bring a flavor in order to make the stories seem
real to the readers.
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