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Fatalism - the doctrine that each person's destiny lies beyond any individual effort to change it.
First Cause - the beginning of an elaborate series of causes, often identified with God.
Free will - the freedom of conscious choice of moral agents, irrespective of the significant influence of genetic endowment, environment, and cultural circumstance.
Hedonism - in moral philosophy, the doctrine that 'good' is that which contributes to pleasure or diminishes pain. The most influential of classical hedonistic philosophers was Epicurus; more recent hedonistic philosophies include those of the utilitarians (Jeremy Bentham, James and John Stuart Mill among them).
Idealism - in metaphysics, the view that ideas or thoughts are the chief, organizing reality, as against the views of materialism, which holds that matter is the primary reality of the universe. The most popular and enduring idealistic philosophy is Platonism.
Intuitionism - in ethics, the view that people have an innate sense of right and wrong.
Logic - the study of proper reasoning, of valid and invalid arguments, of fallacies and syllogisms. Usually broken down into formal logic and informal logic.
Maieutic - see the Socratic Method.
Materialism - the doctrine that matter is the only, or primary, reality, as opposed to idealism, which contends that ideas and thoughts of things are the only reality.
Metaphysics - the study of being in its largest sense; an inquiry into the ultimate reality. [Literally, "beyond physics".]
Monism - 1. In Greek philosophy, the theory that everything is made out of the same basic stuff (e.g., the atomistic philosophy of the Ionians); the theory that there is literally only one thing (the Eleatic monism of Parmenides and his disciples). 2. The rejection of dichotomies, such as those of 'mind' and 'matter'. Examples of monist theories are materialism and idealism.
Moral relativism - The view that values differ across cultures and societies and are not universally "true" in all places and for all time. The opposite of moral absolutism