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Age and conceptual behaviour
Piaget’s observations
Through clinical observations, Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget initiated considerable study of how young children learn concepts that help them cope with their physical surroundings. As models for defining feasible change, concepts are at least as important in such contexts as they are for classification. Piaget stressed that infants must first learn to distinguish themselves from the external environment. Next they form understandings of the physical world (for example, identifying objects that fall) that allow further exploration of the world. Later in the preschool period, children grasp the concept of spatial localization—objects that are separated in space. Piaget characterized this period of learning as classifying objects only on the basis of perceptually attractive, concrete physical features (in agreement with laboratory studies of intradimensional and extradimensional shift).
He and others who used his methods reported that preschool children are apt to explain external change in terms of their own needs: a four-year-old is likely to say that a cloud moves “because the sun is in my eyes.” Among children in early primary grades, other interpretations of cause and effect might be expressed by saying a moving cloud “wants to hide the sun.” In later primary grades, volitional and passive movement usually become conceptually distinct. By adolescence, children develop an ability to deal analytically with objects apart from their immediate perceptual characteristics. This marks an understanding of the hierarchies of subclasses within more general classes—for example, a normal child of eleven applies the properties of all living things to the class called birds.
Given proper information, by the age of six many children display significant concept-forming abilities. They ordinarily have considerable linguistic competence, using (though often not being able to explain) such abstract qualifications as present and past tense. Rules of formal logic (such as “new math”) can be taught in the elementary grades. Progressive use of abstract concepts seems to reflect both maturation and learning.
The role of instruction in concept formation remains poorly understood, yet practically all cultural heritage is explicitly taught. Better knowledge of how to instruct and of the role of imitation in transmitting cultural concepts is needed. In addition, some linguists believe that language itself guides how concepts will be formed; if a language has no words for a concept, they assert, it is unlikely that a speaker of that language will think of that concept.
Aging
It is generally thought that the potential for learning new abstractions tends to decrease in old age and that in extreme cases (such as senility, severe alcoholism, or brain injury) the deficit is dramatic. Much less is known, however, about changes in conceptual ability during the active period of adult life, in part because much of the evidence is conflicting.
As gifted children age, they tend to retain superior ability in grasping new abstractions. Among more typical people, however, little correlation is found between conceptual ability evaluated in the early teens and the same ability measured 10 or more years later.
In such abstract pursuits as pure mathematics or theoretical physics, there is a tendency for creative scientists and writers to be most productive in their late 20s and early 30s, but there are many exceptions. As people get older, they acquire a wealth of concepts that they can apply to a problem, so the net change in ability is hard to predict. Deterioration in learning new concepts is likely to be more rapid past age 60, its severity varying markedly from person to person. Deterioration may be associated with illness or injury rather than with mere aging. In general, fluid intelligence (the ability to manipulate abstract concepts) decreases with age while crystallized intelligence (the use of the accumulated concepts) increases with age.
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