N. V. Tatsenko introduction to theoretical phonetics of english

segmental/phonemic component;

syllabic structure;

accentual structure/word stress/lexical stress;

intonation.

The accentual structure and intonation can be treated together under the heading suprasegmental or prosodic component because these effects are superimposed on the segmental chain of sounds and carry the information which the sounds do not contain [Паращук 2009, p. 11].
1. The segmental/phonemic component. First of all, a spoken message/an utterance can be thought as a succession of the smallest, further indivisible segments which are easily singled out in the flow of speech as separate discrete elements. They are called sounds of a language or speech sounds. Definite sequences of speech sounds constitute the material forms of morphemes, words and utterances.
Sounds function as phonemes, i.e. linguistically distinctive, relevant units capable of differentiating the meanings of morphemes, words, sentences. Phonemes are abstract representations of those speech sounds which can differentiate the meaning - i. e. 'sounds in the mind' (the term suggested by Peter Roach). Each language has its own set of phonemes - the ABC (alphabet) of speech sounds. Realizations of a definite phoneme in definite positions in words are called
allophones/variants, i. e. 'sounds in the mouth' (the term suggested by Peter Roach).
The segmental/phonemic component is manifested in the following ways:

1. 
   it can be reflected in various classifications of its phonemes which are divided first into two fundamental sound types - vowels (V) and consonants (C) with further subdivision of each type;
   
2. 
   each segmental phoneme of a language has a definite number of allophones which occur in definite positions in words. The occurrence of the allophones of a phoneme in different positions in a word is called their distribution. Typical combinations or sequences of sounds are governed by certain regulations and occur in definite positions;
   
3. 
   the articulations of allophones within words and at the junctions of the words in the flow of speech merge and interpenetrate each other. Thus there are specific rules for joining the sounds together in every language. These rules affect articulatory V+C, C+C, and V+V transitions.
   

Thus, the segmental component of a language phonic structure can be studied and described as: a system of phonemes; certain patterns of allophones and their distribution; a set of methods of joining speech sounds/allophones together in words and at their junctions - coarticulatory/adjustment phenomena [Паращук 2009, p. 11-12].
2. The syllabic structure. A unit of spoken message larger than a single sound and smaller than a word is a syllable.
Articulatorily a word may be pronounced "syllable at a time", e.g. un-der-'stand; so the syllable is the smallest further indivisible unit of speech production.
Auditorily the syllable is the smallest unit of perception: the listener identifies the whole of the syllable and only after that the sounds contained. The notion of syllable is very real to
native speakers, and is used in everyday conversation, e. g. Shall I put it in words in one syllable?
Thus, the second component of the phonic structure of a language is the syllabic structure of its words both in citation forms and in utterances. The syllabic structure of words has two inseparable aspects:

1. 
   syllable formation (складоутворення);
   
2. 
   syllable division/separation (складоподш).
   

Both aspects are sometimes covered by the term syllabification. The study and description of how syllables are formed and separated is part of the description of phonic substance of a language [Паращук 2009, p. 12].
3. Word/lexical stress. The amount of effort or energy expended in producing a syllable is called stress. For the hearer, stress is manifested as perceptual prominence, or strength. In other words, a stressed syllable seems more prominent or stronger than the other syllables in a word: it stands out [Pennington 1996, p. 129].
Stress is a cover term for three main features, any of which may result when extra effort is expended in producing a syllable and any of which may give an impression of perceptual prominence. These are: duration, or length; intensity, or loudness; and pitch, or fundamental frequency. The English stressed syllable - especially its vocalic nucleus - tends to have a greater degree of length, loudness and pitch associated with it than the unstressed syllable.
The problem of word stress has three aspects:

• 
  the physical nature of word stress;
  
• 
  the position of word stress in disyllabic and polysyllabic words;
  
• 
  the degrees of word stress.
  

Languages differ in all these aspects of word/lexical stress [Паращук 2009, p. 13].

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