Muattar Xudoyberdiyeva: card 28 How does prof. N. N. Amasova classify phraseological units?

Muattar Xudoyberdiyeva:
CARD 28
1. How does prof. N. N. Amasova classify phraseological units?
Prof N. Amasova gives two categories of phraseological units depending on whether just one component or both are used in phraseologically bound meaning. If all the components have idiomatic meaning such phraseological units are called «idioms», For example. to toe the line (to do exactly as one is told), a free lance (a person who acts independently). If one of the components has bound specialized meaning dependent on the second component she called «phrasemes». For example. dutch courage (courage given by drink), to bring to book (to bring to
justice), small years (in the childhood), small beers (weak beer).

2. What is the stability of phraseological units? 6. What is the ideomaticity of phraseological units?

Stability of phraseological units is seen in its disallowance of the substitution of word groups. For example. «to shrug one's shoulders» does not allow to substitute either «shrug» or shoulder.
3. Why does prof. A. I. Smirnitsky say that phraseological units are the word equivalents?
Prof. A. I. Smirnitsky states that a phraseological unit may be defined as specific word groups functioning as a word-equivalent. The phraseological units are single semantically inseparable units. They are used in one function in the sentence and belong to one part of speech.
"Being word equivalents phraseological units may be more or less. There are phraseological units with one semantic centre, i. e with the domination of component over another. This semantically dominating element also determines the equivalence of the phraseological unit to a certain class of words. This type of phraseological units is termed «collocation» (For example: verb — adverb collocation: to look after; attributive collocation"

CARD 29
1. Why do we include proverbs, sayings quotations in phraseological units?

Phraseological units mostly denote the emotional and expressive state of a person. And proverbs, sayings and quotations exist also as ready made units with a specialized meaning of their own which can not be deduced from the meaning of their components. Therefore they may be included in phraseological units. For example, East or West home is best, a friend in need is a friend indeed. To be or not to be.
The history of many phraseologisms is an interesting record of the nation's past, of its way of life, customs and traditions.

2. What kind of discussion of the so-called word groups as «give up» was among the linguists?

Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky1 worked out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He points out two-top units which he compares with compound words because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes.
Among one-top units he points out three structural types;
a) units of the type «to give up» (verb + postposition type), For example. to art up, to back up, to drop out, to nose out, to buy into, to sandwich in.

3. What is the synonymy of phraseological units?

The synonymy of phraseological units is that there are two or more phrases having the same or nearly meaning. For example, pull one's leg, to make a fool of smb — "ahmoq qilmoq", through thick and thin, by hook or by crook, for love or money –"hech bo'lmaganda".

CARD 30
1. What is the polysemy of phraseological units?

The polysemy of phraseological units is one phrase of several connected meanings. These meanings appeared as a result of the development and changes of its original meaning. For example,
"at large"— 1)ozodlikda; 2) ochiq havoda; 3)maqsadsiz; 4) nishonga tegadigan; 5) erkin; 6)asosan; 7) umuman; 8) batafsil.

2. What is understood by the term «synonym»?

Synonym is two or more words having the same essential meaning or, sometimes nearly the same meaning, but different shades of meanings. They are words coinciding in their notional just but different in their emotional or stylistic shades of meaning.

3. Are there complete synonyms in English?

Synonyms usually fall into several groups:
1)absolute synonyms;
2)phraseologic synonyms;
3)ideographic synonyms;
4)stylistic synonyms.
But complete synonyms do not exist. «In linguistics it has become almost axiomatic that complete synonyms do not exist. Bloomfield said that each linguistic form has a constant and specific meaning. If the forms are phonemically different, we suppose that their meanings are also different. We suppose in short, that there are no actual synonyms».

22-Card
1) what is understood by the term antonyms?

Antonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, identical in style,
expressing contrary or contradictory notions. Antonyms are words which belong to
the same part of speech and have contrary meanings. For example. kind — cruel,
good —bad, big — small, little — much.
2) what is the classification of antonyms

V.N. Comissarov in his dictionary of antonyms classified them into two

groups : absolute or root antonyms «late» - «early» and derivational antonyms «to
please' - «to displease». Absolute antonyms have different roots and derivational
antonyms have the same roots but different affixes. In most cases negative prefixes
form antonyms / un-, dis-, non-/. Sometimes they are formed by means of suffixes
-full and -less.
The difference between derivational and root antonyms is not only in their
structure, but in semantics as well. Derivational antonyms express contradictory
notions, one of them excludes the other, For example. «active»-«inactive».
Absolute antonyms express contrary notions. If some notions can be arranged in a
group of more than two members, the most distant members of the group will be
absolute antonyms, For example. «ugly» , «plain», «good-looking», «pretty»,
«beautiful», the antonyms are «ugly» and «beautiful»

3) What is the task of LEXICOGRAPHY?

Dictionary compiling and its origin
The theory and practice of compiling dictionaries is called lexicography. The
history of compiling dictionaries for English comes as far back as the Old English
period, where we can find glosses of religious books / interlinear translations from
Latin into English/. Regular bilingual dictionaries began to appear in the 15-th
century /Anglo-Latin, Anglo-French , Anglo-German/.
The first unilingual dictionary explaining difficult words appeared in 1604,
the author was Robert Cawdry, a schoolmaster. He compiled his dictionary for
school children. In 1721 an English scientist and writer Nathan Bailey published
the first etymological dictionary which explained the origin of English words. It
was the first scientific dictionary, it was compiled for philologists

CARD 10
1. What are the most common types of conversion do you know?

Conversion is the formation of words without using specific word-building affixes.
The most common types of conversion are the creation of verbs from nouns
and the formation of nouns from verbs.
1.Verbs converted from nouns (denominal verbs) denote:

-action characteristic of the object, e.g. dog (n) – to dog (v);

-instrumental use of the object, e.g. screw (n) – to screw (v);

-acquisition or addition of the object, e.g. fish (n) – to fish (v);

-time, e.g. winter (n) – winter (v);

-deprivation of the object, e.g. dust (n) – dust (v).

2.Nouns converted from verbs (deverbial nouns) denote:

-instance or process of the action, e.g. dance (v) – dance (n);

-agent of the action, e.g. help (v) – help (n);

-place of action, e.g. walk (v) – walk (n);

-object or result of the action, e.g. peel (v) – peel (n).

2. What are the less common types of conversion?

There are other Ways of Conversion. But this types are less used in lexicology.
Adjective > Noun, e.g. a bitter, a wet, a regular etc.;

Adjective > Verb, e.g. to dirty, to calm, to empty etc.;

Noun > Adjective, e.g. a stone wall, a cotton cloth etc.;

Modal verb > Noun, e.g. a must;*

Function word > Noun, e.g. too many ifs and buts;

Function word > Verb, e.g. to down, to up etc.;

Affix > Noun, e.g. There are too many ologies and emes in his report.

3) How should we say that one of the members of converted pairs is a derived word?

In converted pairs the derived word and the underlying word are connected with each other in their meaning. The derived verb shows the act performed by the thing denoted by the noun. For example. «to finger» means «to touch with the finger», «to hand» means «to give the hand», «to help with the hand», «to train means «to go by train, «to bus» means «to go by bus», «to week-end» means «to
spend the week-end». Derived nouns denote the act or the result of an action.
For example. «a knock» means «the result of knocking», «a cut» means «the result of cutting», «a call» means «the result of calling», a find means «the result of finding», «a run» means «the result of running».
The first criterion makes use of the non-correspondence between the lexical meaning of the root-morpheme and the part-of-speech meaning of the stem in one of the two words making up a conversion pair. In cases like pen n — pen v, father n — father v, etc. the noun is the name for a being or a concrete thing.
The second criterion involves a comparison of a conversion pair with analogous word-pairs making use of the synonymic sets, of which the words in question are members. For instance, in comparing conversion pairs like chat v — chat n; show v — show n; work v — work n, etc.

11 Card
1.What do you understand by the term «shortening»?

I know this term because I read this informations in the Muminov's book .
The shortening of words means substituting a part for a whole, part of the word is taken away and used for the whole. For example. demo (demonstration), dub (double), vac (vacuum cleaner), doc (doctor), fig (figure), Mrs (missis).
A shortened word is in some way different from its prototype in usage. The shortened word and its full form have the same lexical meaning but differ only in stylistic reference.
For example. exam (colloq) examination (neutral), chapman (neutral), chap (colloq).

2. Why can't we say that shortening is a derivational word-formation.

Shortened words are structurally simple words and in most cases have the same lexical meaning as the longer words from which they are derived. Shortening is not a derivational process because there are no structural patterns after which new shortened words could be built therefore we can't say that shortening is a derivational wordformation.
3. What distinction is made between abbreviations and clippings.
An addreviation means “a shortening in length.”

A clipping in English generally refers to a cutting and is not a common term used in editing or modifying words. The usual meaning of clipping is “an excerpt or quotation” and is most associated with a newspaper or magazine article cut out for inclusion in a scrapbook, which is an informal personal archive book for momentos to serve as a sort of press-clippings archive by proud parents of gifted children or those who lead dynamic, publicly-recognized lives such as actors and musicians to save reviews of their performances.

Clippings and abbreviations have some peculiarities as simple words. They
take the plural endings and that of the possessive case. They take grammatical
inflexions, For example. exams, docs, cars, doc's they are used with articles: the
USA, a lab, a vac, a doc, etc.
They may take derivational affixes: M. P-ess hanky (from handkerchief),
unkie (from uncle).