Argentina s Currency Board
GLOBAL
Argentina has had a long history of monetary
instability, with inflation rates fluctuating dra-
matically and sometimes surging to beyond
1000% per year. To end this cycle of inflation-
ary surges, Argentina decided to adopt a cur-
rency board in April 1991. The Argentine
currency board worked as follows. Under
Argentina s convertibility law, the peso/U.S.
dollar exchange rate was fixed at one to one,
and a member of the public could go to the
Argentine central bank and exchange a peso
for a U.S. dollar, or vice versa, at any time.
The early years of Argentina s currency
board looked stunningly successful. Inflation,
which had been running at an 800% annual
rate in 1990, fell to less than 5% by the end of
1994, and economic growth was rapid, averag-
ing almost 8% per year from 1991 to 1994. In
the aftermath of the Mexican peso crisis, how-
ever, concern about the health of the
Argentine economy resulted in the public
pulling money out of the banks (deposits fell
by 18%) and exchanging pesos for U.S. dollars,
thus causing a contraction of the Argentine
money supply. The result was a sharp drop in
Argentine economic activity, with real GDP
shrinking by more than 5% in 1995 and the
unemployment rate jumping above 15%. Only
in 1996 did the economy begin to recover.
Because the central bank of Argentina had
no control over monetary policy under the
currency board system, it was relatively help-
less to counteract the contractionary monetary
policy stemming from the public s behaviour.
Furthermore, because the currency board did
not allow the central bank to create pesos and
lend them to the banks, it had very little capa-
bility to act as a lender of last resort. With
help from international agencies, such as the
IMF, the World Bank, and the Interamerican
Development Bank, which lent Argentina
more than US$5 billion in 1995 to help shore
up its banking system, the currency board
survived.
However, in 1998 Argentina entered
another recession, which was both severe
and very long lasting. By the end of 2001,
unemployment reached nearly 20%, a level
comparable to that experienced in the
United States during the Great Depression of
the 1930s. The result has been civil unrest
and the fall of the elected government, as
well as a major banking crisis and a default
on nearly US$150 billion of government
debt. Because the Central Bank of Argentina
had no control over monetary policy under
the currency board system, it was unable to
use monetary policy to expand the economy
and get out of its recession. Furthermore,
because the currency board did not allow the
central bank to create pesos and lend them
to banks, it had very little capability to act as
a lender of last resort. In January 2002,
the currency board finally collapsed and the
peso depreciated by more than 70%. The
result was the full-scale financial crisis
described in Chapter 9, with inflation shoot-
ing up and an extremely severe depression.
Clearly, the Argentine public is not as enam-
oured of its currency board as it once was.
546
PA R T V I
International Finance and Monetary Policy
a country adopting dollarization no longer has its own currency, it loses the revenue
that a government receives by issuing money, which is called seignorage. Because
governments (or their central banks) do not have to pay interest on their currency,
they earn revenue (seignorage) by using this currency to purchase income-earning
assets such as bonds. In the case of the Federal Reserve in the United States, this rev-
enue is on the order of US$30 billion per year. If an emerging-market country dol-
larizes and gives up its currency, it needs to make up this loss of revenue somewhere,
which is not always easy for a poor country.
1. An unsterilized central bank intervention in which
the domestic currency is sold to purchase foreign
assets leads to a gain in international reserves, an
increase in the money supply, and a depreciation of
the domestic currency. Available evidence suggests,
however, that sterilized central bank interventions
have little long-term effect on the exchange rate.
2. The balance of payments is a bookkeeping system
for recording all payments between a country and
foreign countries that have a direct bearing on the
movement of funds between them. The official
reserve transactions balance is the sum of the current
account balance plus the items in the capital
account. It indicates the amount of international
reserves that must be moved between countries to
finance international transactions.
3. Before World War I, the gold standard was predom-
inant. Currencies were convertible into gold, thus
fixing exchange rates between countries. After World
War II, the Bretton Woods system and the IMF were
established to promote a fixed exchange rate system
in which the U.S. dollar was convertible into gold.
The Bretton Woods system collapsed in 1971. We
now have an international financial system that has
elements of a managed float and a fixed exchange
rate system. Some exchange rates fluctuate from day
to day, although central banks intervene in the for-
eign exchange market, while other exchange rates
are fixed.
4. Controls on capital outflows receive support
because they may prevent domestic residents and
foreigners from pulling capital out of a country dur-
ing a crisis and make devaluation less likely.
Controls on capital inflows make sense under the
theory that if speculative capital cannot flow in, then
it cannot go out suddenly and create a crisis.
However, capital controls suffer from several disad-
vantages: They are seldom effective, they lead to
corruption, and they may allow governments to
avoid taking the steps needed to reform their finan-
cial systems to deal with the crises.
5. The IMF has recently taken on the role of an inter-
national lender of last resort. Because central banks
in emerging-market countries are unlikely to be
able to perform a lender-of-last-resort operation
successfully, an international lender of last resort
like the IMF is needed to prevent financial instabil-
ity. However, the IMF s role as an international
lender of last resort creates a serious moral hazard
problem that can encourage excessive risk taking
and make a financial crisis more likely, but refusing
to lend may be politically hard to do. In addition, it
needs to be able to provide liquidity quickly during
a crisis to keep manageable the amount of funds
lent.
6. Three international considerations affect the conduct
of monetary policy: direct effects of the foreign
exchange market on the money supply, balance-of-
payments considerations, and exchange rate consider-
ations. Inasmuch as the United States has been a
reserve currency country in the post World War II
period, U.S. monetary policy has been less affected by
developments in the foreign exchange market and its
balance of payments than is true for other countries.
However, in recent years, exchange rate considera-
tions have been playing a more prominent role in
influencing U.S. monetary policy.
7. Exchange-rate targeting has the following advantages
as a monetary policy strategy: (1) It directly keeps
inflation under control by tying the inflation rate for
internationally traded goods to that found in the
anchor country to which its currency is pegged; (2) it
provides an automatic rule for the conduct of mone-
tary policy that helps mitigate the time-inconsistency
problem; and (3) it is simple and clear. Exchange-rate
targeting also has serious disadvantages: (1) It results
in a loss of independent monetary policy; (2) it
leaves the country open to speculative attacks; and
(3) it can weaken the accountability of policymakers
because the exchange-rate signal is lost. Two strate-
gies that make it less likely that the exchange-rate
regime will break down are currency boards, in
which the central bank stands ready to automatically
exchange domestic for foreign currency at a fixed
rate, and dollarization, in which a sound currency
like the U.S. dollar is adopted as the country s
money.
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