458
PA R T V
Central Banking and the Conduct of Monetary Policy
I N S I D E
T H E
C E N T R A L
B A N K
Federal Reserve Lender-of-Last-Resort Facilities During
the Subprime Financial Crisis
lines, in which it lent dollars to foreign central
banks (in this case, the European Central Bank
and the Swiss National Bank) in exchange for
foreign currencies so that these central banks
could in turn make dollar loans to their domes-
tic banks. These swap lines were enlarged even
further during the course of the crisis.
On March 14, 2008, as liquidity dried up for
Bear Stearns, the Fed announced that it would
in effect buy up $30 billion of Bear Stearns s
mortgage-related assets in order to facilitate the
purchase of Bear Stearns by J.P. Morgan.* The
Fed took this extraordinary action because it
believed that Bear Stearns was so intercon-
nected with other financial institutions that its
failure would have caused a massive fire-sale of
assets and a complete seizing up of credit mar-
kets. The Fed took this action under an obscure
provision of the Federal Reserve Act, section
13(3), that was put into the act during the Great
Depression. It allowed the Fed under unusual
and exigent circumstances to lend money to
any individual, partnership, or corporation, as
long as certain requirements were met. This
broadening of the Fed s lender-of-last-resort
actions outside of its traditional lending to
depository institutions was described by Paul
Volcker, a former chairman of the Federal
Reserve, as the Fed going to the very edge of
its lawful and implied powers.
The broadening of the Fed s lender-of-last-
resort activities using section 13(3) grew as the cri-
sis deepened. On March 16, 2008, the Federal
Reserve announced a new temporary credit
facility, the Primary Dealer Credit Facility
(PDCF), under which primary dealers, many of
them investment banks, could borrow on simi-
lar terms to depository institutions using the tra-
ditional discount window facility. On September
19, 2008, after money market mutual funds were
subject to large amounts of redemptions by
investors, the Fed announced another tempo-
In the U.S., the onset of the subprime financial
crisis in August of 2007 led to a massive increase
in Federal Reserve lender-of-last-resort facilities
to contain the crisis.
In mid-August 2007, the Federal Reserve
lowered the discount rate to just 50 basis points
(0.5 percentage points) above the federal funds
rate target from the normal 100 basis points. In
March 2008, it narrowed the spread further by
setting the discount rate at only 25 basis points
above the federal funds rate target. In September
2007 and March 2008, it extended the term of dis-
count loans: Before the crisis they were over-
night or very short-term loans; in September the
maturity of discount loans was extended to
30 days and to 90 days in March.
In December 2007, the Fed set up a tempo-
rary Term Auction Facility (TAF) in which it made
discount loans at a rate determined through com-
petitive auctions. This facility carried less of a
stigma for banks than the normal discount win-
dow facility. It was more widely used than the
discount window facility because it enabled
banks to borrow at a rate less than the discount
rate and because the rate was determined com-
petitively, rather than being set at a penalty rate.
While the TAF was a new facility for the Fed, the
European Central Bank already had a similar
facility. The TAF auctions started at amounts of
$20 billion, but as the crisis worsened, the
amounts were raised dramatically, with a total
outstanding of over $400 billion.
On March 11, 2008, the Fed created the Term
Securities Lending Facility (TSLF), in which it
would lend Treasury securities to primary deal-
ers for terms longer than overnight, as in exist-
ing lending programs, with the primary dealers
pledging other securities. The TSLF s purpose
was to supply more Treasury securities to pri-
mary dealers so they had sufficient Treasury
securities to act as collateral, thereby helping the
orderly functioning of financial markets. On the
same day, the Fed authorized increases in re-
ciprocal currency arrangements known as swap
(continued)
C H A P T E R 1 7
Tools of Monetary Policy
459
securities
for
a
one-year
period,
and
a
Government
Sponsored
Entities
Purchase
Program, in which the Fed made a commitment
to buy $100 billion of debt issued by Fannie Mae
and
Freddie
Mac
and
other
government-
sponsored enterprises (GSEs), as well as $500 bil-
lion of mortgage-backed securities guaranteed by
these GSEs.
In the aftermath of the Lehman Brothers fail-
ure, the Fed also extended large amounts of
credit directly to financial institutions that
needed to be bailed out. In late September, the
Fed agreed to lend over $100 billion to prop up
AIG and also authorized the Federal Reserve
Bank of New York to purchase mortgage-
backed and other risky securities from AIG to
pump more liquidity into the company. In
November, the Fed committed over $200 billion
to absorb 90% of losses resulting from the fed-
eral government s guarantee of Citigroup s risky
assets; in January it did the same thing for Bank
of America, committing over $80 billion.
The expansion of the Fed s lender-of-last-
resort programs during the subprime financial
crisis was indeed remarkable, expanding the
Fed s balance sheet by over $1 trillion by the
end of 2008, with expectations that the balance-
sheet expansion would be far higher. The
unprecedented expansion in the Fed s balance
sheet demonstrated the Fed s commitment to
get the financial markets working again.
rary facility, the Asset-Backed Commercial
Paper Money Market Mutual Fund Liquidity
Facility (AMLF), in which the Fed would lend to
primary dealers so that they could purchase
asset-backed commercial paper from money
market mutual funds. By so doing, money mar-
ket mutual funds would be able to unload their
asset-backed commercial paper when they
needed to sell it to meet the demands for
redemptions from their investors. A similar facil-
ity, the Money Market Investor Funding Facility
(MMIFF), was set up on October 21, 2008, to
lend to special-purpose vehicles that could buy
a wider range of money market mutual funds
assets. On October 7, 2008, the Fed announced
another liquidity facility to promote the smooth
functioning of the commercial paper market
that had also begun to seize up, the Commercial
Paper Funding Facility (CPFF). With this facility,
the Fed could buy commercial paper directly
from issuers at a rate 100 basis points above the
expected federal funds rate over the term of the
commercial paper. To restrict the facility to rolling
over existing commercial paper, the Fed stipu-
lated that each issuer could sell only an amount
of commercial paper that was less than or equal
to its average amount outstanding in August
2008. Then on November 25, 2008, the Fed
announced two new liquidity facilities, the Term
Asset-Backed Securities Loan Facility (TALF), in
which it committed to the financing of $200 bil-
lion (later raised to $1 trillion) of asset-backed
*Technically, the purchase of these assets was in effect done with a non-recourse loan of $30 billion to J.P. Morgan, with
the Fed bearing all the downside risk except for the first $1 billion, while getting all the gains if the assets were eventually
sold for more than $30 billion. The effective purchase of commercial paper under the Asset-Backed Commercial Paper
Money Market Mutual Fund Liquidity Facility, the Commercial Paper Funding Facility, and the Government Sponsored
Entities Purchase Program was also done with non-recourse loans. Purchasing assets in this way conforms to section 13(3),
which allows the Fed to make loans, but not purchase assets directly.