Liquidity Premium Theory
A P P L I C AT I O N
Let s suppose that the one-year interest rate over the next five years is expected to
be 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, and 9%. Investors preferences for holding short-term bonds
have the liquidity premiums for one-year to five-year bonds as 0%, 0.25%, 0.5%,
0.75%, and 1.0%, respectively. What is the interest rate on a two-year bond and a
five-year bond? Compare these findings with the answer in the previous Application
dealing with the pure expectations theory.
Solution
The interest rate on the two-year bond would be 5.75%.
,
l
nt
where
i
t
+
year 1 interest rate
+
5%
+
year 2 interest rate
+
6%
l
2
t
+
liquidity premium
+
0.25%
n
+
number of years
+
2
Thus
i
2
t
+
5%
,
6%
2
,
0.25%
+
5.75%
i
t
+
1
e
i
nt
+
i
t
+
i
t
+
1
e
+
i
t
+
2
e
,
. . .
,
i
t
+
(
n
*
1)
e
n
Let s see if the liquidity premium and preferred habitat theories are consistent
with all three empirical facts we have discussed. They explain fact 1, that interest
rates on different-maturity bonds move together over time: a rise in short-term
interest rates indicates that short-term interest rates will, on average, be higher in
the future, and the first term in Equation 3 then implies that long-term interest rates
will rise along with them.
They also explain why yield curves tend to have an especially steep upward
slope when short-term interest rates are low and to be inverted when short-term
rates are high (fact 2). Because investors generally expect short-term interest rates
to rise to some normal level when they are low, the average of future expected
short-term rates will be high relative to the current short-term rate. With the addi-
tional boost of a positive liquidity premium, long-term interest rates will be sub-
stantially above current short-term rates, and the yield curve would then have a
steep upward slope. Conversely, if short-term rates are high, people usually expect
them to come back down. Long-term rates would then drop below short-term rates
because the average of expected future short-term rates would be so far below
current short-term rates that despite positive liquidity premiums, the yield curve
would slope downward.
The liquidity premium and preferred habitat theories explain fact 3, that yield
curves typically slope upward, by recognizing that the liquidity premium rises with
a bond s maturity because of investors preferences for short-term bonds. Even if
C H A P T E R 6
The Risk and Term Structure of Interest Rates
129
The interest rate on the five-year bond would be 8%.
l
nt
where
i
t
year 1 interest rate
5%
year 2 interest rate
6%
year 3 interest rate
7%
year 4 interest rate
8%
year 5 interest rate
9%
l
5
t
liquidity premium
1%
n
number of years
5
Thus
i
5
t
If you did similar calculations for the one-, three-, and four-year interest rates, the
one-year to five-year interest rates would be as follows: 5.0%, 5.75%, 6.5%, 7.25%, and
8.0%, respectively. Comparing these findings with those for the pure expectations
theory, we can see that the liquidity preference theory produces yield curves that
slope more steeply upward because of investors preferences for short-term bonds.
=
5%
6%
7%
8%
9%
5
1%
8.0%
i
t
+
4
e
i
t
+
3
e
i
t
+
2
e
i
t
+
1
e
i
nt
i
t
+
i
t
+
1
e
+
i
t
+
2
e
+
. . .
+
i
t
+
(
n
-
1)
e
n
130
PA R T I I
Financial Markets
short-term interest rates are expected to stay the same on average in the future,
long-term interest rates will be above short-term interest rates, and yield curves
will typically slope upward.
How can the liquidity premium and preferred habitat theories explain the
occasional appearance of inverted yield curves if the liquidity premium is posi-
tive? It must be that at times short-term interest rates are expected to fall so much
in the future that the average of the expected short-term rates is well below the
current short-term rate. Even when the positive liquidity premium is added to this
average, the resulting long-term rate will still be below the current short-term
interest rate.
As our discussion indicates, a particularly attractive feature of the liquidity
premium and preferred habitat theories is that they tell you what the market is
predicting about future short-term interest rates just from the slope of the yield
curve. A steeply rising yield curve, as in panel (a) of Figure 6-6, indicates that
short-term interest rates are expected to rise in the future. A moderately steep
yield curve, as in panel (b), indicates that short-term interest rates are not
expected to rise or fall much in the future. A flat yield curve, as in panel (c), indi-
cates that short-term rates are expected to fall moderately in the future. Finally,
F I G U R E 6 - 6
Yield Curves and the Market s Expectations of Future Short-Term Interest
Rates According to the Liquidity Premium and Preferred Habitat Theories
Term to Maturity
Term to Maturity
Term to Maturity
Term to Maturity
(a) Future short-term interest rates
expected to rise
(b) Future short-term interest rates
expected to stay the same
(c) Future short-term interest rates
expected to fall moderately
(d) Future short-term interest rates
expected to fall sharply
Yield to
Maturity
Yield to
Maturity
Yield to
Maturity
Yield to
Maturity
an inverted yield curve, as in panel (d), indicates that short-term interest rates
are expected to fall sharply in the future.
People often think that the slope of the yield curve can be used to forecast future
short-term interest rates. The yield curve has this practical use only if it is deter-
mined by the expectations theory of the term structure that views long-term inter-
est rates as equalling the average of future short-term interest rates. If, however,
there are liquidity (term) premiums in the term structure, then it will be difficult to
extract a reliable forecast of future short-term interest rates without good measures
of these premiums.
In the 1980s, researchers examining the term structure of interest rates ques-
tioned whether the slope of the yield curve provides information about movements
of future short-term interest rates.
4
They found that the spread between long- and
short-term interest rates does not always help predict future short-term interest
rates, a finding that may stem from substantial fluctuations in the liquidity (term)
premium for long-term bonds. More recent research using more discriminating tests
now favours a different view. It shows that the term structure contains quite a bit
of information for the very short run (over the next several months) and the long
run (over several years) but is unreliable at predicting movements in interest rates
over the intermediate term (the time in between).
5
Research also finds that the yield
curve helps forecast future inflation and business cycles (see the FYI box).
The liquidity premium and preferred habitat theories are the most widely
accepted theories of the term structure of interest rates because they explain the
major empirical facts about the term structure so well. They combine the features
of both the expectations theory and the segmented markets theory by asserting
that a long-term interest rate will be the sum of a liquidity (term) premium and
the average of the short-term interest rates that are expected to occur over the life
of the bond.
The liquidity premium and preferred habitat theories explain the following
facts: (1) Interest rates on bonds of different maturities tend to move together
over time, (2) yield curves usually slope upward, and (3) when short-term inter-
est rates are low, yield curves are more likely to have a steep upward slope,
whereas when short-term interest rates are high, yield curves are more likely to
be inverted.
The theories also help us predict the movement of short-term interest rates in
the future. A steep upward slope of the yield curve means that short-term rates are
expected to rise, a mild upward slope means that short-term rates are expected to
C H A P T E R 6
The Risk and Term Structure of Interest Rates
131
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