rate on the one-year bond next year to be 11%. What is the expected return over
the two years? What interest rate must a two-year bond have to equal the two one-
10%). The bondholder will be willing to hold both the one- and two-year bonds only
if the expected return per year of the two-year bond equals 10%. Therefore, the
interest rate on the two-year bond must equal 10%, the average interest rate on the
We can make this argument more general. For an investment of $1, consider
the choice of holding, for two periods, a two-period bond or two one-period
bonds. Using the definitions
i
t
today s (time
t
) interest rate on a one-period bond
interest rate on a one-period bond expected for next period (time
t
1)
i
2
t
today s (time
t
) interest rate on the two-period bond
the expected return over the two periods from investing $1 in the two-period bond
and holding it for the two periods can be calculated as
After the second period, the $1 investment is worth (1
i
2
t
)(1
i
2
t
). Subtracting
the $1 initial investment from this amount and dividing by the initial $1 investment
gives the rate of return calculated in the above equation. Because (
i
2
t
)
2
is extremely
small
if
i
2
t
10%
0.10, then (
i
2
t
)
2
0.01
we can simplify the expected return
for holding the two-period bond for the two periods to
With the other strategy, in which one-period bonds are bought, the expected
return on the $1 investment over the two periods is
This calculation is derived by recognizing that after the first period, the $1 investment
becomes 1
i
t
, and this is reinvested in the one-period bond for the next period,
yielding an amount
. Then, subtracting the $1 initial investment
from this amount and dividing by the initial investment of $1 gives the expected
return for the strategy of holding one-period bonds for the two periods. Because
is also extremely small if
, then
)
0.01 we can
simplify this to
Both bonds will be held only if these expected returns are equal, that is, when
Solving for
i
2
t
in terms of the one-period rates, we have
(1)
which tells us that the two-period rate must equal the average of the two one-
period rates. Graphically, this can be shown as:
i
2
t
i
t
+
i
t
1
e
2
2
i
2
t
i
t
i
t
+
1
e
i
t
+
i
t
+
1
e
i
t
(
i
t
+
1
e
i
t
i
t
+
1
e
0.10
i
t
(
i
t
+
1
e
)
(1
i
t
)(1
i
t
+
1
e
)
1
+
i
t
+
i
t
+
1
e
i
t
(
i
t
+
1
e
)
-
1
=
i
t
+
i
t
+
1
e
+
i
t
(
i
t
+
1
e
)
(1
i
t
)(1
i
t
+
1
e
)
-
1
2
i
2
t
(1
i
2
t
)(1
i
2
t
)
1
1
2
i
2
t
(
i
2
t
)
2
1
2
i
2
t
(
i
2
t
)
2
i
t
1
e
C H A P T E R 6
The Risk and Term Structure of Interest Rates
123
Today
0
Year
1
Year
2
i
t
i
e
t
1
i
2
t
i
t
i
e
t
1
2
124
PA R T I I
Financial Markets
We can conduct the same steps for bonds with a longer maturity so that we
can examine the whole term structure of interest rates. Doing so, we will find that
the interest rate of
i
nt
on an
n
-period bond must equal
(2)
Equation 2 states that the
n
-period interest rate equals the average of the one-
period interest rates expected to occur over the
n
-period life of the bond. This is
a restatement of the expectations theory in more precise terms.
1
i
nt
*
i
t
+
i
t
+
1
e
+
i
t
+
2
e
+
. . .
+
i
t
+
(
n
-
1)
e
n
1
The analysis here has been conducted for discount bonds. Formulas for interest rates on coupon
bonds would differ slightly from those used here but would convey the same principle.
Expectations Theory and the Yield Curve
A P P L I C AT I O N
The one-year interest rate over the next five years is expected to be 5%, 6%, 7%,
8%, and 9%. Given this information, what are the interest rates on a two-year bond
and a five-year bond? Explain what is happening to the yield curve.
Solution
The interest rate on the two-year bond would be 5.5%.
where
i
t
*
year 1 interest rate
*
5%
*
year 2 interest rate
*
6%
n
*
number of years
*
2
Thus
The interest rate on the five-year bond would be 7%.
where
i
t
*
year 1 interest rate
*
5%
*
year 2 interest rate
*
6%
*
year 3 interest rate
*
7%
*
year 4 interest rate
*
8%
*
year 5 interest rate
*
9%
n
*
number of years
*
5
i
t
+
4
e
i
t
+
3
e
i
t
+
2
e
i
t
+
1
e
i
nt
*
i
t
+
i
t
+
1
e
+
i
t
+
2
e
+
. . .
+
i
t
+
(
n
-
1)
e
n
i
2
t
*
5%
+
6%
2
*
5.5%
i
t
+ 1
e
i
nt
*
i
t
+
i
t
+
1
e
+
i
t
+
2
e
+
. . .
+
i
t
+
(
n
-
1)
e
n
The expectations theory is an elegant theory that explains why the term struc-
ture of interest rates (as represented by yield curves) changes at different times.
When the yield curve is upward-sloping, the expectations theory suggests that
short-term interest rates are expected to rise in the future, as we have seen in our
numerical example. In this situation, in which the long-term rate is currently above
the short-term rate, the average of future short-term rates is expected to be higher
than the current short-term rate, which can occur only if short-term interest rates
are expected to rise. This is what we see in our numerical example. When the yield
curve is inverted (slopes downward), the average of future short-term interest rates
is expected to be below the current short-term rate, implying that short-term inter-
est rates are expected to fall, on average, in the future. Only when the yield curve
is flat does the expectations theory suggest that short-term interest rates are not
expected to change, on average, in the future.
The expectations theory also explains fact 1, that interest rates on bonds with
different maturities move together over time. Historically, short-term interest rates
have had the characteristic that if they increase today, they will tend to be higher
in the future. Hence, a rise in short-term rates will raise people s expectations of
future short-term rates. Because long-term rates are the average of expected future
short-term rates, a rise in short-term rates will also raise long-term rates, causing
short- and long-term rates to move together.
The expectations theory also explains fact 2, that yield curves tend to have an
upward slope when short-term interest rates are low and are inverted when short-
term rates are high. When short-term rates are low, people generally expect them
to rise to some normal level in the future, and the average of future expected
short-term rates is high relative to the current short-term rate. Therefore, long-
term interest rates will be substantially above current short-term rates, and the
yield curve would then have an upward slope. Conversely, if short-term rates are
high, people usually expect them to come back down. Long-term rates would
then drop below short-term rates because the average of expected future short-
term rates would be below current short-term rates and the yield curve would
slope downward and become inverted.
2
C H A P T E R 6
The Risk and Term Structure of Interest Rates
125
Thus
Using the same equation for the one-, three-, and four-year interest rates, you
will be able to verify the one-year to five-year rates as 5.0%, 5.5%, 6.0%, 6.5%, and
7.0%, respectively. The rising trend in short-term interest rates produces an
upward-sloping yield curve along which interest rates rise as maturity lengthens.
i
5
t
*
5%
+
6%
+
7%
+
8%
+
9%
5
*
7.0%
2
The expectations theory explains another important fact about the relationship between short-term
and long-term interest rates. As you can see looking back at Figure 6-4, short-term interest rates are
more volatile than long-term rates. If interest rates are
mean-reverting
that is, if they tend to head
back down after they are at unusually high levels or go back up when they are at unusually low
levels
then an average of these short-term rates must necessarily have lower volatility than the
short-term rates themselves. Because the expectations theory suggests that the long-term rate will
be an average of future short-term rates, it implies that the long-term rate will have lower volatility
than short-term rates.
126
PA R T I I
Financial Markets
The expectations theory is an attractive theory because it provides a simple
explanation of the behaviour of the term structure, but unfortunately it has a major
shortcoming: it cannot explain fact 3, that yield curves usually slope upward. The
typical upward slope of yield curves implies that short-term interest rates are usually
expected to rise in the future. In practice, short-term interest rates are just as likely
to fall as they are to rise, and so the expectations theory suggests that the typical
yield curve should be flat rather than upward-sloping.
As the name suggests, the
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