Методические рекомендации по аналитическому чтению для студентов 3-5 курсов факультета иностранных языков
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- “ Down came the storm and smote again
How does the story begin?Has anything happened before the extract begins? Is the action fast/slow moving? Which episodes have been given the greatest emphasis? Is the end clear-cut and conclusive or does it leave room for suggestion? On what note does the story end? Does the author speak in his own voice or does he present the events from the point of view of one of the characters? Divide the text into logically complete parts. (It’s easier to analyse the shorter pieces, that’s why the junior students are supposed to divide the text, while the senior students should work with the whole text, without dividing it.) Look through the text under analysis once again and divide it into logically complete parts. Nearly always the borders of the part coincide with the borders of paragraphs and a logically complete part may comprise several paragraphs. Suggest the possible title for every part; choose a key-sentence in each part. A key-sentence is a sentence, which embodies the main idea (the essence) of the part or discloses the chief thought of the writer. Rarely there can be two key-sentences. 5. Give the detailed (rigorous) analysis of each logically complete part. This point of the stylistic analysis is the most important for it completes and deepens all your previous observations of the text. It helps to understand thoroughly all the peculiarities of literary arrangement of the text and finally to grasp the author’s individual style and ideas and to extract the most useful linguistic information. Analyse each part according to the following scheme:1 give a gist of the part. (What do we get to know from this part?); b) describe the atmosphere created in the part. What is the difference between the mood and atmosphere? Atmosphere is subtler and is observed in the part of the text, while mood is characterization of the text in general. Roughly speaking, the general mood of the text (see p.2.5) comprises the atmosphere of all its logically complete parts. You needn’t supply the defined mood with the examples, while it is obligatory to show how the writer manages to create this or that atmosphere of the logically complete part. Every logically complete part has its own peculiar atmosphere, which differs from the atmosphere of other parts. That’s why if it isn’t the first part of the text, compare its atmosphere with the previous one and say how it differs. c) Say how the author manages to create this particular atmosphere. The atmosphere is created by different lexical, syntactical and phonetic means. So the detailed analysis of each logically complete part consists of bringing out and explaining the peculiarities and details of 3 levels: 1) lexical, 2) syntactical and 3) phono – graphical. Lexical level Great attention must be paid to the vocabulary employed by the author, for you know that words are the basic means of conveying a thought and consequently of creating the certain atmosphere. That is why first of all analyse the author’s choice of words. What functional style (formal, neutral, and colloquial) do the majority of words in the part under analysis belong to? Prove it with examples. If the part presents a mixture of styles, indicate examples of every style. Search for groups of words, belonging to different spheres of men’s activity (educational, juridical, military, medical, etc.). It’s especially important if the text bears a thematical character. Say how these words contribute to the atmosphere. For example, the frequent usage of military words creates a tragic, gloomy, war-like, nervous atmosphere, but if the same words are out–of–place, their usage in certain context is likely to create a humorous or ironical atmosphere. Point out synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, wrong or out–of–place usage of words, polysemantic words used in their different meanings (the latter often create a humorous effect). Bring out their effectiveness. Pay attention to words, used in their emotive meaning, usually these are words with negative or positive connotation. As a rule they are very suggestive, such as: nervously, happily, majestically, gorgeous, coward hatred, etc. Indicate the peculiar use of set expressions: clichés, proverbs, sayings, idioms, quotations and allusions. Explain their usage. Finally point out lexical expressive means and stylistic devices. Bring out their effectiveness. Explain what the narration gains through them. Try to read between the lines and interpret the implication (подтекст) considering these devices. The following stylistic devices and expressive means should be considered here: metaphor, metonymy, irony, zeugma, pun, epithets, oxymoron, simile, periphrasis, euphemisms, hyperbole (see Supplement 1). Remember that your aim is not to find and list as many stylistic devices as possible, but what is more important – to interpret them, to explain what idea the author tried to bring to the mind of the reader by these devices. And don’t tend to explain each device separately: remember about the convergence of stylistic devices. Syntactical level Now you are to analyse the syntactical arrangement of logically complete part. The syntactical arrangement is not less important for understanding the atmosphere of the part under study than choice of words. Pay attention to the paragraph building, length of paragraphs, and length of sentences in paragraphs. Draw parallels between the seriousness of the theme and length of the sentences and paragraphs. A series of short, unexpended sentences may contribute to creation of a nervous, restless atmosphere, atmosphere of great intensity and holds the reader in suspense, a kind of nervous pulsation is created, as if a regular beat in one’s mind and heart. Long, with plenty of subordinate clauses sentences may signify the depth of the author’s idea, thought, conflict, problem, etc. And a chaotic arrangement of short and long sentences may reflect the inner state of the character, his great hesitation, despair, chaos in his thoughts, involved internal conflict of the character. Analyse the compositional patterns of syntactical arrangement: indicate the cases of stylistic inversion, parallel constructions, chiasmus, repetitions (anaphora, epiphora, framing, and catch repetition), enumeration, antithesis, suspense. Explain what is gained through them. (see Supplement 1). Investigate types of connection between parts of the sentences, between sentences themselves. Here mind coordination, subordination, asyndeton, and polysyndeton. Try to notice some specific features, such as: the cases, when the coordinating conjunction and expresses subordination and is probably used to make each following statement stand out more clearly. On the other hand subordination and coordination may be effectively expressed through participial phrases and constructions. A comparatively wide range of relations is expressed by means of participial constructions. (“We roamed about sweet Sonning for an hour or so, and then, it being too late to push on past Reading, we decided to go back to one of the Shiplake islands, and put up there for the night.” Jerome K. Jerome). In case of asyndeton it’s necessary to determine the difference between the omission of the conjunction as the norm of the language, both literary and colloquial, and as stylistic devices used for special informative and aesthetic purposes. Explain the peculiar use of colloquial constructions: ellipsis, suppression, and aposiopesis, questions in the narrative, uttered and unuttered (inner) represented speech. Phono-graphical level The stylistic use of phonemes and their graphical representation is very important for the creation of expressive and emotive connotations. Graphical expressive means serve to convey in the written form those emotions, which in the oral type of speech are expressed by intonation and stress. Any emphatic use of punctuation can reflect the emphatic intonation of the speaker, and consequently should attract your attention as well as any deliberate change of spelling of a word. (For example: “I ref–use his money altogezzer”.) In the analysis of phonetic side of a logically complete part try to find and interpret the following phonetic stylistic devices: onomatopoeia (звукоподражание), alliteration (repetition of consonants), assonance (repetition of similar vowels).(see Supplement 1) Often the author resorts to such graphical means as italics, CAPITALIZATION, h-y-p-h-e-n-a-t-i-o-n, multiplication, as in the example of desperate appeal capitalization is used : “Help. Help. HELP!” All graphical peculiarities are aimed at revealing and emphasizing the author’s viewpoint and at giving additional information about the speaker such as: blurred, incoherent or careless pronunciation caused by temporary or permanent factors (social, territorial, etc. status). 6. Make up the character sketches (раскройте образы героев) Most writers attempt to create characters that strike us, not as stereotypes, but as unique individuals. Characters are called round if they are complex and develop or change in the course of the story as for example, the character of Atticus Finch in H. Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird”. Flat characters are usually one – sided as, for example, the character of Mayella Ewell in H. Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird” or the character of aunt in “The Lumber-Room” by H. Munro. Round and flat characters have different functions in the conflict of the story. The conflict may be external, which is between human beings or between man and the environment (individual against nature, individual against the established order, values in the society). The internal conflict takes place in the mind, here the character is torn between opposing features of his personality. Note! The Russian word «герой» has English equivalents “character” or “personage”, and «главный герой» – “hero” or “protagonist”, or “central (main, principal) character” (for example, It’s clear that the author wants us to like his young hero (protagonist). The author’s portrayal of the central characters (not main heroes!) is quite life – like). The Russian word combination «второстепенные герои» is translated as “minor characters (personages)”. You’d better begin making character sketches with separating the main characters of the text from the minor ones. Start with the character sketches of the main personages because minor characters often serve to form certain background (фон) for the better and deeper understanding of the main ones. That’s why sometimes it is not necessary to characterize the minor personages. Note! Герои произведения могут подразделяться на heroes и villains, что примерно соответствует такому же делению в русском языке на положительных и отрицательных героев. В таком же значении могут противопоставляться good (virtuous) and bad (evil) characters, но не positive and negative characters, хотя можно говорить о positive and negative traits (features) of characters. The description of the different aspects (physical, moral, social, etc.) of a character is known as characterization. Each personage should be analysed according to the method of characterization. Direct characterization is when the author himself or another personage defines the character for the reader by describing or explaining it, thus offering his own interpretation of the personage. Thus, this method suggests the author’s subjective idea of the personage. Indirect characterization is when the author shows the character in action and leaves it to the reader to judge the character: a) through his actions, deeds, conversations, thoughts; b) by what they say and in what manner they speak; c) by their mode of behaviour and way of thinking. When characterizing a personage make your specific interpretation of his personality. With what main problem is the personage faced? Is it an external or internal conflict and how does he manage to overcome the problems? Describing personages you may need the following adjectives: sad, sinister, pathetic, vulnerable, reliable, stupid, cruel, awkward, (un) trustworthy, honest, unpleasant, mean, (in) sensitive, clever, romantic, generous, grateful, compassionate, practical, tender, cynical, sentimental, kind, shallow, (un) educated, rude, (in) sincere, egocentric, reasonable, reserved, well – bred, frank, modest, shy, ill – bred, ambitious, pompous, obstinate, selfish, stingy, etc. Finally draw a conclusion about author’s attitude towards the personage. Say if the author sympathizes with the personage or not, if he makes the reader like the personage or not. If possible point out stylistic devices aimed at delineating the personage. The following questions will help you to organize your thoughts more logically and compactly: What are the characters’ names and what do they look like? Does this have any significance? Are the characters round or flat? Does the narrator employ interior monologue to render the thoughts and feelings of the characters? Are the characters credible? Do they act consistently? If not, why not? With what main problem is the protagonist faced? Is it a conflict with another individual? With society? Within himself? In the course of the story do the characters change as a result of their experience? Does the narrator sympathize with the character? Remains aloof and detached? You may find the following phrases useful when giving character sketches
7. Think what is more important in the text under analysis: plot development or character drawing. This point should follow point 3 and 6, when both the plot and the characters are analysed. Usually this point brings on a heated discussion, for so many men, so many minds. If you are of two minds, try to think of the conflict the main character faces. Often if it is the internal conflict, the author’s aim is to show the development of personality, how a man behaves in a difficult situation, how he is influenced by the surrounding, how his way of thinking or mode of behaviour change with the development of events. The events themselves are not of great importance, but the character drawing really is. Such texts, as a rule, have a psychological slant, the author resorts to indirect method of characterization. The plot is trivial and banal in itself. When the characters are flat, directly characterized, there is nothing to speak of personalities, but the sequence of events is unusually involved, complicated, then, probably, the plot is of greater importance (but it is not a rule). In fact in such texts the situation may be usual, trivial, but the events unfold in a strange, unusual way and the outcome is not predictable. But there are texts in which both plot development and character drawing are equally important. 8. Summarize all your comments. This point of stylistic analysis of the text is very important for you are supposed to recollect all your observations and reach the aim of your hard work on the text – to share your views on the author’s style. For a moment imagine you are a literary critic and speak on your personal perception of the author’s individual style, his manner of writing. Comment on the language peculiarities, which make up the essential properties of the individual style of the author. Does the story abound in tropes or does the narrator use them sparingly? And, to crown it all, say what the impact (воздействие) of the text is. What is it due to? Discuss the literary properties of the story. Here the following phrases will help you:
Here are some questions and tasks for self – control: After you are through with all points of the stylistic analysis of the text, make sure that you are able to answer the following questions and can do the tasks without hesitation. What is the time and setting of the text (story)? What is the essential plot of the story? What is the central idea of the text? What do you think of the author’s ability to draw character? Write a character-study of the main persons in the text. What literary devices does the author use to bring out his point more clearly? Do you think the narrative would gain or lose if it were (not) written in the first person? Give the summary of the text/ story. What emotions are aroused in the reader as the story unfolds? Do you think that the ending is justifiable? Does it spring naturally from the facts of the story, or is it “forced”? What is the compositional structure of the text/ story? Sum up your opinion of the text/story. If you feel difficult or uncertain about some questions, go back to necessary points of this brochure. In case all the questions and tasks come easy to you, one can be sure you have made a good job of the stylistic analysis of the text and you are ready for fruitful discussion in your group. 4. Примерный анализ отрывка из художественного произведения Дж. Голсуорси “To let” John Galsworthy (Born 1867 - Died 1933) TO LET
This novel is the last volume of the Forsyte Saga. It marks both the end of the first, stage in the development of the Forsytes and the beginning of the second, post-war stage in the chronicle of their doings. That final stage is the subject of Galsworthy's second trilogy, the Modern Comedy, where the younger generation of the Forsytes are depicted against the background of England's post-war decay. In the following extract the novelist holds up to ridicule the decadence of modern bourgeois art. On this occasion he puts his ideas into the mouth of Soames Forsyte, formerly satirized as the "man of property". Soames's scornful bewilderment at sight of Expressionist paintings renders the feelings of the novelist himself. CHAPTER I Encounter Arriving at the Gallery оff Cork Street, however, he paid his shilling, picked up a catalogue, and entered. Some ten persons were prowling round. Soames took steps and came on what looked to him like a lamp-post bent by collision with a motor omnibus. It was advanced some three paces from the wall, and was described in his catalogue as "Jupiter". He examined it with curiosity, having recently turned some of his attention to sculpture. "If that's Jupiter," he thought, "I wonder what Juno's like." And suddenly he saw her, opposite. She appeared to him like nothing so much as a pump with two handles, lightly clad in snow. He was still gazing at her, when two of the prowlers halted on his left. "Epatant!” he beard one say. "Jargon!" growled Soames to himself. The other boyish voice replied: "Missed it, old bean; he's pulling your leg. When Jove and Juno created he them, he was saying: 'I'll sec how much these fools will swallow.' And they've lapped up the lot." "You young duffer! Vospovitch is an innovator. Don't yon see that lie's brought satire into sculpture? The future of plastic art, of music, painting, and even architecture, has set in satiric. It was bound to. People are tired — the bottom's tumbled out of sentiment." "Well, I'm quite equal to taking a little interest in beauty. I was through the War. You've dropped your handkerchief, sir." Soames saw a handkerchief held out in front of him. He took it with some natural suspicion, and approached it to his nose. It had the right scent — of distant Eau dc Cologne — and his initials in a corner. Slightly reassured, he raised his eyes to the young man's face. It had rather fawn-like ears, a laughing mouth, with half a toothbrush growing out of it on each side, and small lively eyes above a normally dressed appearance. "Thank you," he said; and moved by a sort of irritation, added: "Glad to hear you like beauty; that's rare, nowadays." "I dote on it," said the young man; "but you and I are the last of the old guard, sir." Soames smiled. "If you really care for pictures," he said, "here's my card. I can show you some quite good ones any Sunday, if you're down the river and care to look in." "Awfully nice of you, sir. I'll drop in like a bird. My name's Mont — Michael." And he took off his hat. Soames, already regretting his impulse, raised his own slightly in response, with a downward look at the young man's companion, who had a purple tie, dreadful little sluglike whiskers, and a scornful look — as if he were a poet! It was the first indiscretion he had committed for so long that he went and sat down in an alcove. What had possessed him to give his card to a rackety young fellow, who went about with a thing like that? And Fleur, always at the back of his thoughts, started out like a filigree figure from a clock when the hour strikes. On the screen opposite the alcove was a large canvas with a great many square tomato-coloured blobs on it, and nothing else, so far as Soames could see from where he sat. He looked at his catalogue: "No. 32 - 'The Future Town' — Paul Post." "I suppose that's satiric too," he thought. "What a thing!" But his second impulse was more cautious. It did not do to condemn hurriedly. There had been those stripey, streaky creations of Monet's, which had turned out. such trumps; and then the stippled school, and Gauguin. Why, oven since the Post-Impressionists there had been one or two painters not to be sneezed at. During the thirty-eight years of his connoisseur's life, indeed, he had marked so many "movements", seen the tides of taste and technique so ebb and flow, that there was money to be made out of every change of fashion. This too might quite well he a case where one must subdue primordial instinct, or lose the market. He got up and stood before the picture, trying hard to see it with the eyes of other people. Above the tomato blobs was what he took to be a sunset, till some оnе passing said: "He's got the airplanes wonderfully, don't you think!" Below the tomato blobs was a band of white vertical black stripes, to which he could assign no meaning whatever till some one else came by, murmuring: "What expression he gets with his foreground!" Expression? Of what? Soames went back to his seat. The thing was "rich", as his father would have said, and wouldn’t give a damn for it! Expression! Ah! they wore all Expressionists now, he had heard, on the Continent. So it was coming here too, was it? He remembered the first wave of influenza in 1887 — or 8 - hatched in China, so they said. He wondered where this — this Expressionism—had been hatched. The thing was a regular disease! (J. Galsworthy. To Let, Foreign Languages Publishing House. Moscow, 1952, pp. 48-50) COMMENTS In this description of Soamcs's impressions of a gallery stocked with pieces of modern art Galsworthy's realism is displayed to great advantage. Within a very few pages the reader gets a vivid notion not only of the new school in painting, but also of the man who is so indignant with it. On the one hand his disgust and his perplexity throw light on the fictitious masterpieces and their false standards of beauty; on the other hand those masterpieces become an efficient means of characterizing Soames himself. The same end is served by the contrast between the soundness of his judgment and the flightiness, the restlessness of those of the new generation who delight in such works of art. Abundance of thought and feeling in a short passage where nothing much actually happens, dislike of emphasis and pathos is an important feature of Galsworthy's quiet and restrained art. His intense contempt for the mannerisms of modern painting is not poured out either in withering sarcasm or in grotesque exaggeration, but finds an outlet, in a tone of matter-of-fact irony. The supposed statues of Jupiter and Juno arc to Soames just "a lamp-post bent by collision with a motor omnibus" and "a pump with two handles" respectively. Seen through the eyes of hard common-sense, brought down to the crudest elements, these statues appear particularly ridiculous. The same process of reducing a complex whole — a pretentious picture of "The Future Town" - to a number of primitive daubs serves to expose the futility of Expressionist art. However hard Soames tries, he can sec nothing but "a great many square tomato-coloured blobs" and "a band of white with vertical black stripes". The very sound of the word "blob", imitating the dripping of some liquid, is derogatory here and suggests that the paint was dropped on the canvas anyhow. This plain, sensible view is comically opposed to the enthusiasm of other and younger spectators who seem to recognize a wonderful picture of airplanes in the red blobs and a peculiar "expression" in the black and white stripes. The false pretences of the picture bearing the pompous name of "The Future Town" are the more clearly revealed as Soames anxiously does his best to go abreast of the times and make his taste sufficiently up to date. The harder the beholder's efforts to appreciate, the clearer the painter's failure to succeed. Soames's business instincts are well expressed in his fear to misunderstand the exhibits and to miss an opportunity of profit. Thus, oven when Galsworthy does make a mouthpiece of his hero, the latter's utterances, however close they come to the author's opinions, are appropriate to the personality of the speaker and come convincing from his lips. It is Galsworthy himself who has no respect for Expressionism, but Soames voices that feeling in a way peculiarly Forsytean: he is afraid to trust his eminently healthy taste, his own sense of beauty, for, as he reminds himself, "it did not do to condemn hurriedly. There had been those stripey, streaky creations of Monet's..." These words make part of a prolonged inner monologue, which in the later volumes of the Forsyte Saga and in the whole of the Modern Comedy becomes Galsworthy's favourite method of characterization. The inner speech of the hero is indissolubly linked with the author's comments, so much so, really, that when speaking of Soames, for example, Galsworthy resorts to expressions entirely suitable to Soames ("His second impulse was more cautious", "He remembered the first wave of influenza in 1887 — or 8 — hatched in China, so they said"). With Galsworthy the inner monologue is different from what it is, say, in Meredith's books. For one thing, the author of the Forsyte Saga uses it much more often. For another thing, he interferes with his comments much less than his predecessor. Lastly, the language of the monologues (particularly when they are Soamcs's) is much more concise and laconic, utterly devoid of sentiment. It is quite free of abstract terms, and is exceedingly terse, practical and full of idiomatic constructions commonly used in everyday speech ("painters not to be sneezed at", "they had turned out such trumps" etc.). Soames the businessman makes himself heard when in his meditations on art practical considerations come to the top: "there was money to be made out of every change of fashion", "lose the market" and others. Even his metaphors, when they put in an appearance, are few and definitely "low" - as, for instance, the comparison of Expressionism to influenza hatched in China: "He wondered where this — this Expressionism — had been hatched. The thing was a regular disease!" These metaphors are born out of Soames's disgust for what he considers a corruption of art and are therefore significant of his attitude towards painting: they prove that Soames had aesthetic criteria of his own and was capable of disinterested evaluation. Besides the inner monologue and characterization through surroundings, Galsworthy, ever resourceful in his search for the realistic approach, makes ample use of the dialogue as an efficient means to let his characters speak fur themselves without the author's interference. In the present excerpt Soames unexpectedly finds himself involved in a talk with young strangers, one of whom is an advocate of "extreme" innovation of art. Their speech might be described as a curious combination of vulgar colloquialisms ("duffer", "lo lap up", "the bottom's tumbled out of sentiment") with bookish and learned phraseology ("innovator", "plastic art", "to bring satire into sculpture), of English and French slang ("old bean", "to pull somebody's leg", "épatant") with solemn parody of Biblical constructions ("Jove and Juno created he them"). Exaggeration ( "awfully nice of you", "I dote on it [beauty]") goes hand in hand with understatement ("I'm quite equal to taking a little interest in beauty"). Galsworthy perfectly realized, — indeed, lie was one of the first writers to do so, — that the flippant manner and the crude speech of post-war young people was the result of a severe shock of disillusionment: they wore so disappointed with those fine words that used to go with a fine show of public feeling that for them "the bottom had tumbled out of sentiment", and satire both in art and in mode of talk seemed to be the only possible alternative. Their manner of speaking, cynical, affectedly coarse, substituting descriptive slangy catchwords for the proper names of things, is strongly contrasted to Soames's formal, plain speech, with his habit of giving things their common standard meanings and never saying more than is strictly necessary. The contrast in manner and speech habits is of great importance in lending vitality to both interlocutors, in stressing the immense difference between the younger men's irresponsibility and rootlessness and Soames's resolute clinging to property, his dogged hold on life. As a follower of the realistic tradition, Galsworthy never fails in attaching special significance to the tiniest details: Soames approaches his handkerchief, that Michael has picked up for him, to his nose to make sure it is really his — with that suspicionsness that is so characteristic of' the Forsytes. He raises his hat only slightly in parting from young Mont and looks downward at his companion, for he is naturally distrustful of new acquaintances and inclined to be no more than coldly polite (raising his hat ever so little) and supercilious — in looking down upon anybody whom he does not recognize as his equal and half expects to be troublesome. All these little things are very suggestive of that fear of giving oneself away that Galsworthy elsewhere described as a feature by which it is as easy to tell a Forsyte as by his sense of property. Galsworthy's realism does not only lie in his capacity for making his hero part and parcel of his surroundings and convincing the reader of his typicality: ho is a fine artist in reproducing the individual workings of his characters' minds. Soames, the man of property, is also a man of deep and lasting feelings. Such is his devotion to his daughter Fleur, who was "always at the back of his thoughts" and "started out like a filigree figure from a clock when the hour strikes". Incidentally, this dainty simile, so utterly unlike the matter-of-factness that characterizes the usual reproduction of Soames's prosaic mind, is expressive of thepoetic colouring that Galsworthy introduces to render the strength of the affection Soames has for Fleur. As a general rule, the novelist, though following in the tracks of classical realists, breaks away from the literary polish, the fine descriptive style that was kept up to the very end of the 19th century. At the same time as Shaw, Wells and Bennett, Galsworthy starts a new tradition of bringing the language of literature (in the author's speech, no less than in that of the personages) close to the language of real life. He does away with the elaborate syntax of 19th century prose and cultivates short, somewhat abrupt sentences, true to the rhythm and the intonation of the spoken language and full of low colloquialisms and even slang. SUPPLEMENT I Guide to Stylistic Devices and expressive means In linguistics there are different terms to denote those particular means by which a writer obtains his effect. Expressive means, stylistic means, stylistic devices and other terms. For our purposes it’s necessary to make a distinction between expressive means and stylistic devises. The expressive means of a language are those phonetic means, morphological forms, means of word-building, and lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms, which function in the language for emotional or logical intensification of utterance. Some of them are normalized, and good dictionaries label them as intensifiers. In most cases they have corresponding neutral synonymous forms. The most powerful expressive means of any language are phonetic. The human voice can indicate subtle nuances of meaning that no other means can attain. Pitch, melody, stress, pausation, drawling, drawling out certain syllables, whispering, a sing-song manner of speech and other ways of using the voice are more effective than any other means of intensifying the utterance emotionally or logically. Among the morphological expressive means the use of the Present Simple instead of the Past Simple must be mentioned first (Historical Present). In describing some past events the author uses the present tense, thus achieving a more vivid picturisatoin of what was going on. The use of shall in the second and third person may also be regarded as an expressive means. Compare the following synonymous statements and you will not fail to observe the intensifying element in the sentence with shall (which in such cases always gets emphatic stress). He shall do it (=I shall make him do it). He has to do it (=It is necessary for him to do it). Among word-building means we find a great many forms which serve to make the utterance more expressive and fresh or to intensify it. The diminutive suffixes as –y(ie), -let, e.g. dear, dearie, stream, streamlet, add ad some emotional colouring to the words. We may also refer to what are called neologisms and nonce-words formed with non-productive suffixes or with Greek roots, as: mistressmanship, cleanorama, walkathon. At the lexical level there are a great many words which due to their inner expressiveness, constitute a special layer. These are words with emotive meaning only, like interjections, words which have both referential and emotive meaning, like some of the qualitative adjectives; words which still retain a twofold meaning; or words belonging to special group of literary English or of non-standard English (poetic, archaic, slang, vulgar, etc.) and some other groups. The expressive power of these words can not be doubted, especially when they are compared with the neutral vocabulary. The same can be said of the set expressions of the language. Proverbs and sayings as well as catch-words form a considerable number of language units which serve to make speech more emphatic, mainly from the emotional point of view. Their use in every-day speech can hardly be overestimated. Some of these proverbs and sayings are so well-known that their use in the process of communication passes almost unobserved; others are rare and therefore catch the attention of the reader or the listener. Here is an example of a proverb used by Dickens in “Dombey and Son” to make up a simile. “As the last straw breaks laden camel’s back, this piece of underground information crushed the sinking spirits of Mr. Dombey.” In every-day speech you can hear such phrases as “Well, it will only add fuel to the fire”, which can easily be replaced by synonymous neutral expressions, like “It will only make the situation worse.” Finally at the syntactical level there are many constructions which, being set against synonymous ones will reveal a certain degree of logical or emotional emphasis. Let us compare the following pairs of structures: “I have never seen such a film.” “Never have I seen such a film” “Mr. Smith came in first.” “It was Mr. Smith who came in first.” The second structure in each pair contains emphatic elements. They cause intensification of the utterance: in the first case emotional in character, in the second, logical. In the English language there are many syntactical patterns which serve to intensify emotional quality (e.g. He is a brute of a man, is John. Isn’t she cute! Fool that he was! ). Lexical Stylistic Devices Metaphor (метафора) – transference of names based on the associated likeness between two objects. It is an implicit comparison between object A and object B. The words that make the comparison explicit – like, as or as if/ as though – are not there; a metaphor takes the form “A” is “B”. Metaphor – the most important and widespread figure of speech, in which one thing, idea or action is referred to by a word or expression normally denoting another thing, idea or action, so as to suggest some common quality shared by the two. In metaphor, this resemblance is assumed as an imaginary identity rather than directly stated as a comparison: referring to a man as that pig or saying he is a pig is metaphorical, whereas he is like a pig is a simile. A metaphor can be expressed by all notional parts of speech. Structurally, metaphor can be simple or sustained (развернутая). A simple metaphor is expressed in one word or a word combination having figurative meaning on the whole. When a group of metaphors is clustered around the same central image to make it more vivid and complete, we speak of a sustained metaphor. Examples: “The dust danced and was golden” (a simple metaphor). “Money burns a hole in my pocket.” (a simple metaphor). “The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees… ” (a simple metaphor) “As he spoke, so lightly, tapping the end of his cigarette against the ash-tray, she felt the strange beast that had slumbered so long within her bosom stir, stretch itself, yawn, prick up its ears, and suddenly bound to its feet and fix its long hungry stare upon those far away places.” (a sustained metaphor). “The average New Yorker is caught in a Machine. He whirls along, he is dizzy, he is helpless. If he resists, the Machine will mangle him. If he does not resist, it will daze him first with its glittering reiterations, so that when the mangling comes he is past knowing.” (a sustained metaphor). When likeness is observed between inanimate objects and human beings, we speak of personification (олицетворение). Example: “The face of London was, now strangely altered… the voice of Mourning was heard in every street.” Metonymy (метонимия) reflects the actually existing relations between two objects and thus based on their contiguity (nearness). Since the types of relations between two objects can be finally limited, they are observed again and again, and metonymy in most cases is trite (to earn one’s bread; to live by the pen; to keep one’s mouth shut, etc.). Most cases of original metonymy presenting relations between a part and the whole or a representative of the class instead of the class and vice versa are known as synecdoche (синекдоха). Metonymy is expressed by nouns or substantivized numerals. (“…She was a pale and fresh eighteen.”) Examples: “She saw around her, clustered about the white tables, multitudes of violently red lips, powdered cheeks, cold, hard eyes, self-possessed arrogant faces, and insolent bosoms.” (synecdoche) The types of relations between the objects can be grouped in the following way: the name of a symbol instead of the thing it symbolizes: “crown, throne ” instead of “the King’s power”; “crown of laurel” instead of “Gloria.” e.g., “The leaves dropped off his imaginary crown of laurel; he turned to the gate, loaned against it, and cried bitterly.” b) The name of an instrument instead of the action it performs: e.g. “Give every man ear and few thy voice.” c) Consequence instead of cause: e.g. “He (fish) desperately takes the death (the fishing hook)” The container instead of the thing contained: e.g. “The hall applauded.” “She was a sunny, happy sort of creature. Too fond of the bottle.” Irony (ирония) is the clash of two diametrically opposite meanings within the same context, so as to give an apparently straightforward statement or event a very different significance, which is sustained in oral speech by intonation. Irony can be realized also through the medium of situation, which, in written speech may extend as far as a paragraph, chapter or even the whole book. Bitter, socially or politically aimed irony is referred to as sarcasm (сарказм). Examples: “Contentedly Sam Clark drove off, in the heavy traffic of three Fords …” (ирония) “Even at this affair, which brought out the young smart set, the hunting squire set, the respectable intellectual set, they sat up with gaiety as with a corpse.” (ирония) “It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.” (ирония) Hyperbole (гипербола) is a deliberate exaggeration of some quantity, quality, size, etc., big though it might be even without exaggeration. If it is smallness that is being overrated (a woman of pocket size), we speak of understatement (преуменьшение), which works on identical principles but in opposite directions with hyperbole proper. Examples: “There were about twenty people at the party, most of whom I hadn’t met before. The girls were dressed to kill.” (гипербола) “… he was all sparkle and glitter in the box at the Opera.” (гипербола) “… her eyes were open, but only just. Don’t move the tiniest part of an inch.” (преуменьшение) “I hope, Cecily, I shall not offend you if I state quite frankly and openly that you seem to me to be in every way the visible personification of absolute perfection.” (гипербола) Epithet (эпитет) - an adjective or adjectival phrase used to define a characteristic quality or attribute of some person or thing. It expresses a characteristic of an object, both existing and imaginary. This stylistic device is based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence. It points out some of the properties of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features. Sometimes an adverbial can serve as an epithet. Examples: a lipsticky smile; a silvery laugh; to smile cuttingly. “I closed my eyes, smelling the goodness of her sweat and the sunshine-in-the-breakfast-room smell of her lavender-water.” “The flowery Spring leads sunny Summer, And yellow Autumn presses near, Then in its turn comes gloomy Winter, Till smiling Spring appear.” (R. Burns) Oxymoron (оксиморон) joins two antonymous or contradictory words into one syntagm, most frequently attributive (adoring hatred) or adverbial (shouted silently) less frequently of other patterns (doomed to liberty). Examples: “They looked courteous curses at me.” “Welcome to Reno, the biggest little town in the world.” “I got down off that stool and walked to the door in a silence that was as loud as ton of coal going down a chute.” Zeugma (зевгма) – use of a word in the same grammatical relation to two adjacent words in the context, one metaphorical and the other literal in sense. Literally a “yoking”, zeugma is usually achieved by a verb or preposition with two objects (but not always). Examples: “He struck off his pension and his head together.” “And the boys took their places and their books.” “Have you been seeing any spirits?” inquired the old gentleman. “Or taking any?” added Bob Allen. “Sally,” said Mr. Bently in a voice almost as low as his intentions, “let’s go out to the kitchen.” Pun (каламбур) – the humorous or ludicrous use of a word in more then one sense; a play on words. Examples: Alg.: … Besides, your name isn’t Jack at all; it’s Ernest. Jack..: It isn’t Ernest; it’s Jack. Alg.: You have always told me it was Ernest. I have introduced you to everyone as Ernest. You look as if your name was Ernest. You’re the most earnest-looking person I ever saw in my life. It is perfectly absurd your saying that your name isn’t Ernest. (O.Wilde) (The homophones Ernest and earnest are interplayed.) When I am dead, I hope it may be said: “His sins were scarlet, but his books were read.”(H. Belloc) (Here the pun is based on two homophones, read and red.) “It was toward evening, and I saw him on my way out to dinner. He was arriving on a taxi; the driver helped him totter into the hose with a load of suitcases. That gave me something to chew on: by Sunday my jaws were quite tired.” (T.Capote) (Here the two meanings of a polysemantic word to chew are the basis of pun. One is indirect – to think over, another is literal which is made vivid through the word jaws. ) Lexico-Syntactical Stylistic Devices Simile (сравнение) is an explicit comparison between object A and object B, in the form “A is like B” or “A is as … (adjective) as B”. There must be some similarity or point of comparison between A and B. Similes have formed elements in their structure: connective words; like, as, such as, as if, seem. Example: “O, my Love’s like a red red rose That’s newly sprung in June.” (R. Burns) Object A is the lover, – “my Love”. Object B is the “red red rose”. The point of comparison is beauty and freshness. Notice that in this simile we do not consider other qualities of a rose – it has thorns, it dies every year (although we may consider them in other similes). Ordinary comparison and simile must not be confused. Comparison means weighing two objects belonging to one class of things with the purpose of establishing the degree of their sameness or difference. To use a simile is to characterize one object by bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely different class of things. Compare: She is as tall as her sister (comparison) and She is as a fox (simile). As you see, simile has the following elements: TENOR, VEHICLE, and GROUND, where tenor is the object compared, vehicle is the object compared to, and ground is the basis of comparison. Examples: “With the quickness of a long cat, (she) climbed up into the nest of cool-bladed foliage.” (Lawrence) (Here the tenor is she, the vehicle is cat, and the ground is cat’s quality - quickness.) “Huddled in her grey fur against the sofa cushions, she had a strange resemblance to a captive owl.”(Galsworthy) We should mention that many examples had lost their stylistic value and became set expressions which do not bear any expressiveness, such as: to blush like a peony, fat as a pig, blind as a bat, to drink like a fish, bright as a button, to fit like a glove, to smoke like a chimney, and so forth. Antithesis (антитеза, противопоставление), a variety of parallelism, is a structure consisting of two steps, the lexical meanings of which are opposite to each other. The steps may be presented by morphemes, which brings forth morphological antithesis (underpaid and overworked), by antonyms (or contextual antonyms), by completed statements or pictures semantically opposite to one another. Examples: “Three bold and experienced men – cool, confident and dry when they began, white, quivering and wet when they finished… (R. Kipling) “In marriage the upkeep of woman is often the downfall of man.” (Y. Esar) “His feet were high; his lessons were light …” (O.Henry) Litotes (литота) – a figure of speech by which an affirmation is made indirectly by denying its opposite, usually with the effect of understatement. It presupposes double negation; one – through the negative particle no or not; the other – through: a) a word with a negative affix or prefix (not hopeless); b) a word with negative or derogatory meaning (not a coward); c) a negative construction (not without taste); d) an adjective or adverb preceded by too (not too awful). Litotes conveys the doubts of the speaker concerning the exact characteristics of the object. Следует разграничить ЛИТОТУ и разновидность гиперболы, выражающей “преувеличение незначительности”, ПРЕУМЕНЬШЕНИЕ. Литота отличается от гиперболы не только противоположным значением, но и самой своей техникой. Эта последняя состоит в частичном отрицании какого-либо признака, приписываемого предмету речи. Этим достигается стилистический эффект подчеркнутой сдержанности выражения мысли, а иногда неполноты указываемого признака. Examples: “The idea was not totally erroneous. The thought did not displease me.” (I. Murdoch) “She writes rather too often.”(Th.Hardy) “The face wasn’t a bad one. It had what they called charm.”(Galsworthy) “With patience, which most other princes would have considered as degrading, and not without a sense of amusement, the Monarch of France waited till his life-guardsman had satisfied the keenness of a youthful appetite.”(W.Scott) Periphrasis (перифраз) is renaming of an object using a roundabout form of expression instead of naming it directly in a single word or phrase; that is of using a more or less complicated syntactical structure, instead of a word. Periphrasis is often used in euphemisms like passed away for “died”. Examples: “Bill went with him and they returned with a tray of glasses, siphons and other necessaries of life.” (A. Christie) “The nose was anything but Grecian – that was a certainty, for it pointed to heaven.”(D. du Maurier) “Deila was studying under Rosenstock – you know his repute as a disturber of the piano keys (= a pianist).”(O.Henry) Climax (нарастание) – a figure of speech in which a sequence of terms is linked by chain-like repetition through three or more steps, representing a row of relative synonyms placed in the ascending order of importance. Examples: “It was a mistake … a blunder … lunacy …” (W. Deeping) “I’ll smash you. I’ll crumble you, I’ll powder you. Go to the devil!” (Ch. Dickens) “I am sorry, I am so very sorry, I am so extremely sorry.”(Chesterton) “…Golden Dreams” – he hung lovingly on the words – “a very sweet story, singularly sweet; in fact, madam, the critics are saying it is the sweetest thing that Mr. Slush has done.”(Leacock) Anticlimax (разрядка) – when climax is suddenly interrupted by an unexpected turn of the thought which defeats expectations of the reader (listener) and ends in complete semantic reversal of the emphasized idea. Example: “Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover everything – except the obvious.” (O. Wilde) “Harris never “weeps, he knows not why.” If Harris’s eyes fill with tears, you can bet it is because Harris has been eating raw onions… ”(Jerome K. Jerome) Syntactical Stylistic Devices Inversion (инверсия) deals with the displacement of the predicate or with the displacement of secondary members of the sentence and their shift into the front, final or an unusual position in the sentence; it is a device of style which gives liveliness and sometimes vigor to the sentence. Examples: “Women are not made for attack. Wait they must.” (J. Conrad) “Calm and quiet below me in the sun and shade lay the old house…” (Ch. Dickens) “Down came the storm and smote againThe vessel in its strength.”(J. Longfellow) Apokoinu construction (конструкция апокойну) – a blend of two clauses into one, which is achieved at the expense of the omission of the connecting word. The main stylistic function is to emphasize the irregular, careless or uneducated character of the speech of personage.Examples: “It was I was father to you.” (S. Beckett) “There was a whisper in my family that it was love drove him out, and, not love of the wife he married.” (J. Steinbeck) Repetition (повтор) – a repetition of the same word or phrase with the view of expressiveness. There are several types of repetition. If we take a and b for the repeated unit, it’s possible to reflect the sentence structure in the following schemes:ordinary repetition offers no fixed place for the repeated unit – aa , a…, a a…, …aaa…. anaphora: a…,a…,a…,a… . epiphora: …a, …a, …a, …a. framing: a…a. anadiplosis (catch repetition): …a, a… . chain repetition; …a, a…b, b…c, c…d. We shouldn’t forget morphological repetition when a morpheme is repeated (mainly to achieve humorous effect). Examples: “Failure meant poverty, poverty, meant squalor, squalor led, in the final stages, to the smells and stagnation of B. Inn Alley.” (D. du Maurier) (It is a chain repetition.) “If you have anything to say, say it, say it.”(Ch. Dickens) (It is an ordinary repetition.) “He ran away from the battle. He was an ordinary human being that didn’t want to kill or be killed, so he ran away from the battle.”(St. Heim) (It is phraming.) “She knew of their existence by hundreds and thousands. She knew what results in work a given number of them would produce, in a given space of time. She knew them in crowds passing to or from their nests, like ants or beetles. But she knew from her reading infinitely more of the ways of toiling insects, than of these toiling men and women.”(Dickens) (It is anaphora) Parallelism (параллелизм) - repetition, involving the whole structure of the sentence; specific similarity of syntactic structure of adjacent word groups. It usually contributes to the rhythmical effect. Parallelism is differentiated into complete , presenting identical structure of two or more successive clauses or sentences, and partial, in which the repeated sentence-pattern may vary. Examples: “The coach was waiting, the horses were fresh, the roads were good, and the driver was willing.” (Ch. Dickens) “If you are sorrowful, let me know why, and be sorrowful too; if you waste away and are paler and weaker every day, let me be your nurse and try to comfort you. If you are poor, let us be poor together; but let me be with you.”(Ch. Dickens) Chiasmus (хиазм) – is also called reversed parallelism, for into its pattern two sentences are included, of which the second necessarily repeats the structure of the first, only in reversed manner: Subject – Predicate - Object; Object - Predicate - Subject. Examples: “I know the world and the world knows me.” “Down dropped the breeze, the sails dropped down” (Coleridge) “There are so many sons who won’t have anything to do with their fathers, and so many fathers who won’t speak to their sons.”(O.Wilde) Suspense (напряжение неизвестности) – holding the reader in tense anticipation. It is often realized through the separation of predicate from subject or of link verb from predicative, by the deliberate introduction between them of a phrase, clause or sentence (frequently parenthetic). Examples: “All this Mrs. Snagsby, as an injured woman and the friend of Mrs. Chadband and the follower of Mr. Chadband and the mourner of the late Mr. Tulkinghorn, is here to certify.”(Ch.Dickens) “I’ve been accused of bad taste. This has disturbed me, not so much for my own sake (since I am used to slights and arrows of outrageous fortune) as for the sake of criticism in general.”(S.Maugham) “…the day on which I take the happiest and best step of my life – the day on which I shall be a man more exulting and more enviable than any other man in the world – the day on which I give Bleak House its little mistress – shall be next month, then,” said my guardian.(Ch. Dickens) Aposiopesis (умолчание, недосказ) – sudden break in the narration. It is used to indicate strong emotions paralyzing the character’s speech or his deliberate stop in the utterance to conceal its meaning. Example: “It is the moment one opens one’s eyes that is horrible at sea. These days! Oh, these days! I wonder how anybody can …” (J. Cornard) “And it was so unlikely that any one would trouble to look there – until – until – well.”(Th.Drieser) Phonetic expressive means. Phonetic expressive means deal with sound instrumenting of the utterance. They produce the effect of euphony or cacophony. Alliteration (аллитерация) – a repetition of the same consonant usually at the beginning of neighboring words or accented syllables. Examples: “ Landscape – lover, lord of language.” (A. Tennyson) “His back was as blue as a swordfish’s and his belly was silver and his hide was smooth and handsome.”(E.Hemingway) (In his description of a shark alliteration of “s” and “h” create a smooth and rhythmical effect, delineating the smoothness of the shark’s body). Assonance (ассонанс) – agreement of vowel sounds in the stressed syllables (sometimes in the following unstressed syllables) of neighboring words. Example: “ And the Raven never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting …”(E. Poe) Onomatopoeia (звукоподражание) – the use of words in which the sound is suggestive of the object or action designated: buzz, cuckoo, bang, hiss…Example: “And now there came the chock – chock of wooden hammers!” Mansfield. Graphical expressive means. Graphical expressive means serve to convey in the written form those emotions which in the oral type of speech are expressed by intonation and stress. We refer here to emphatic use of punctuation and deliberate chain of the spelling of a word. Emphatic punctuation is often used in many syntactical stylistic devices – aposiopesis, rhetorical question, suspense and may be not connected with any other stylistic devices. Examples: “And there, drinking at the bar was – Finney!”(R.Chandler) Graphon – is a graphical fixation of phonetic peculiarities of pronunciation with the intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word. Graphon is an effective means of supplying information about the speaker’s origin, social or educational background, physical or emotional condition, etc. To graphical expressive means refer: changes of the type (italics, capitalization), spacing of graphemes (hyphenation, multiplication). Examples: “Help. Help. HELP.” Huxley. (The desperate appeal is expressed by capitalization) “… grinning like chim – pan – zee.” O’Connor. Rather a humiliating manner of commenting on is created by hyphenation. SUPPLEMENT II List of words and phrases for stylistic analysis of the text. the idea (gist, epitome, main line of thought, message) can be stated as the following… the text opens with the atmosphere of growing (nervous) suspense (strain) the syntactical organization (pattern, design) is violated the text abounds in (is abounded in) … the text (extract, excerpt, paragraph) under study (observation, examination) … falls (can be split) into 2 (3) … parts the paragraph is in full accord (accordance) with the preceding one as far as its idea goes the compositional structure of the poem (paragraph) is based (built) on framing (antithesis, parallelism) the extract is complete in itself (it presents a stylistic whole with the unity of its idea and form) the standard stands in sharp contrast to the following one; the contrast is reflected in the language the arrangement of the sentence in the paragraph is by no means accidental; it is informative (it gives additional information about the idea) the mood of suspense (gloom, cheerfulness, nervousness) prevails 9is prevailed) in the excerpt the author draws a gloomy (cheerful) picture… the rhythm of the verse (narration) is unhurried (slow, energetic, throbbing, excited, meditative, jerky, broken, regular, even) the author digresses from the thread of narration (the topic of the story) (to pursue his aim) the author employs (resorts to, adheres to, uses, make use of, utilizes)… the author converses with the reader as if he has an interlocutor before him (the reader is involved into the events of the text) the author lays bare (exposes, unmasks, condemns, tackles, touches upon, dwells on, pinpoints, delineates high lights, stresses, underlines, ridicules, mocks at, accentuates) the author lays (puts, places) emphasis (stress) on… the writer carries the idea to the mind of the reader through… the stylistic device is an indicator (signal) of roused (fluttered, suppressed) emotions (emotional, tensional mixed feelings) the stylistic device stresses (underlines, discloses, accentuates, emphasizes, is meant to point out, throw light on, highlights, pinpoints, adds to, contributes to, gives an insight into, explains and clarifies, serves to provide the text with additional emphasis) the satirical (humorous, ironical) effect is heightened (enhanced intensified, augmented) by a convergence of stylistic device and expressive means in the paragraph the stylistic device contributes (adds) to the some effect (the effect desired by the author, the effect the author strives for, a more colourful and emotional presentation of the scene) the stylistic device adds importance to the indication of place (time, manner) of action (it indicates where and when the scene is laid) the stylistic device is suggestive (illustrative, expressive, explicit, implicit) of… the stylistic device and expressive means are linked and to produce a joint impression (are aimed at achieving the desired effect) the stylistic device wants (needs) interpreting (decoding); it prepares the ground for the next sentence (paragraph, syntactical whole) the stylistic device makes explicit what has been implied before, lends an additional expressiveness to, is implicit, makes the utterance arresting, enables the author to convey the feelings and emotions of the character, reveals the character’s low (high) social position, indicates the step the character occupies in the social ladder, serves best to specify the author’s (character’s) attitude to there is no direct indication of that; it is understood through (perceiving through) the title of stylistic device is highly informative (symbolic, emotive, emotionally coloured, emphatic) the stylistic device suggests a definite kind of intonational design; it is the word – that prominence is given (if we analyse the intonational pattern of the sentence we see that to the word is given a strong (heavy) stress) looking deeper into the arrangement of the utterance we come to the conclusion… the reader traces the marked partiality of the writer for his hero in order to impose (impress) on the reader his attitude towards the character the author employs… leading gradually up to the hidden idea that he is pursuing the reader feels… the most convincing proof of the idea is… we’ll discuss the implication the following sentence suggests hints and suggestive remarks (implications and suggestions) scattered all over the text we perceive here that… on a more careful observation it becomes obvious… it is worthwhile going a little bit deeper in (to) the language texture the idea is hidden behind the unimportant facts the author describes; the reader has to read between the lines in order to grasp the author’s idea the word (sentence) is changed (loaded, burdened) with imprecation connotation the stylistic device suggests a touch of authenticity (plausibility) to the narrated events (it makes the reader believe that the narrated events have actually taken place in real life) the episode is presented through the perception of the character (this type of presenting a picture of life as if perceived by a character – the so – called effect of immediate presence) the stylistic device serves as clue to the further development of the action the plot unfolds (itself) dynamically (slowly) Words and phrases for interpreting fiction plot and plot structure. plots may be simple, complex, intricate exposition complications climax denouement the opening sentence (paragraph) of the story the closing sentence (paragraph) an internal conflict an external conflict settings may be realistic, historical, fantastic, exotic, rural, etc; to establish the setting; to set the story in…; the events are set in.. a straight line narrative structure, a complex narrative structure, a circular narrative structure; a frame structure the simple and clear structure of the story the span of time the story covers digressions to interrupt the narrative with digressions literary techniques: retardation, foreshadowing, flashbacks to the past Means of characterization. character – images, landscape – images, animal – images, object – images the central (main, major) character the protagonist the hero, heroine the villain the antagonist a foil, to serve as a foil to, to act as a foil to (for) the author’s mouthpiece a type a caricature a simple (or a fat) character, a complex (or well – rounded) character moral, mental, physical, spiritual characteristics direct characterization, indirect characterization to reinforce characterization, to contribute to characterization, individualization, verisimilitude to depict (to portray, to describe) a character to evaluate (to assess, to rate, to judge) a character’s actions to share a character’s emotions to arouse warmth, affection, compassion, delight, dislike, disgust, aversion, resentment, antipathy, etc. Narrative method. the omniscient author, the observer – author, an onlooker, an observer the story is told from the point of view of an onlooker (an observer, a character who participates in the events) the events are presented through the perception of … the events are presented through the eyes and mind of … the dominant point of view the dramatic form, the pictorial form the story is presented in the dramatic (pictorial) form a reliable (or unreliable) narrator the narrator enters into the mind of; the narrator reveals the personality of; the narrator shares the viewpoint of; the narrator gives a biased view of… a first – hand testimony the immediacy and freshness of the impression to increase the immediacy and freshness of the impression; to stimulate imagination; to increase the credibility of the plot; to stimulate the reader to make his own judgments; to make the reader draw his own conclusions Tonal system. the tone may be formal, semi – formal, informal, conversational, casual, sympathetic, cheerful, vigorous, serious, humorous, mock – serious, lyrical, dramatic, excited, agitated, passionate, impassive, detached, matter – of – fact, dry, impartial, melancholy, moralizing, unemotional, sarcastic, ironical, sneering, bitter, reproachful, etc. to assume a formal (informal) tone the tone is maintained by a number of stylistic devices the atmosphere may be peaceful, cheerful, cheerless, gloomy, etc. to create the necessary atmosphere (mood); to convey the atmosphere attitudes may be agreeable, optimistic, involved, detached, impassive, indifferent, critical, contemptuous, ironical, cynical, etc. to evoke a certain attitude; to share the author’s (narrator’s, character’s) attitude to jeer, to sneer, to mock, to satirize, to ridicule, to poke fun at a humorous effect a deliberate exaggeration an unexpected comparison a round – about way of naming things the irony of life, the irony of the situation The message of a literary work. contents and form; the contents are rendered vividly… theme; a story on the theme of … the main problems; to raise (pose) a problem, to reveal its relevance the writers standpoint (views) on a moving, exciting, impressive story to awaken (arouse) interest, to retain interest, to hold the interest of the reader to excite (evoke) a feeling, an emotion, a state of mind, the scene of being a witness to arouse the readers excitement, concern, curiosity, emotions to excite one’s mind, to touch one’s heart, to stir one’s imagination a response, to evoke (elicit) response an accent, to lay the accent (stress) on, to accentuate, to emphasize, to enforce a gifted, talented writer a means of conveying the message an artistic detail, a particularity, presupposition a means cohesion recurrence, repetition, parallelism the author’s message, the objective message a traditional symbol, a personal symbol implication; to express something implicitly, indirectly; to imply, to suggest, to hint at to be suggestive, to have implication to understand the implied meaning verisimilitude a true – to – life story, realistic story to create an impression of truth to render reality, to represent life to reveal different aspects of human nature, human relationships, people’s fates, errors, conflicts, heroism to lay bare, to expose, to reveal. Литература Кузнец М.Д., Скребнев Ю.М. Стилистика английского языка, Л., Учпедгиз, 1960. Мосткова С.Я., Смыкалова Л.А., Чернявская С.П. Английская литературоведческая терминология, Л., Просвещение, 1967. Фалькович М.М. An Advanced Learner’s Reading aid, М., Международные отношения, 1981. Chris Baldick The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1990. Galperin I. R. Stylistics, M., ВШ., 1971 Kukharenko V.A. A book of Practice in Stylistics, М., ВШ., 1986. Kukharenko V.A. Seminars in Style, M., ВШ., 1969. Martin A. And Hill R. Modern short stories, Prentice Hall International (UK) LT, 1992. 1 Последовательность некоторых пунктов в предлагаемой схеме может быть изменена по усмотрению преподавателя. 1 Эта часть пункта обязательна для студентов, изучающих курс стилистики. Остальным студентам достаточно указать знакомые приемы из курса В.Д. Аракина «Практический курс английского языка» и объяснить их значимость. Download 459,25 Kb. 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Raqamli texnologiyalar
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tavsiya etilgan
iqtisodiyot kafedrasi
steiermarkischen landesregierung
asarlaringizni yuboring
o'zingizning asarlaringizni
Iltimos faqat
faqat o'zingizning
steierm rkischen
landesregierung fachabteilung
rkischen landesregierung
hamshira loyihasi
loyihasi mavsum
faolyatining oqibatlari
asosiy adabiyotlar
fakulteti ahborot
ahborot havfsizligi
havfsizligi kafedrasi
fanidan bo’yicha
fakulteti iqtisodiyot
boshqaruv fakulteti
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iqtisodiyot fakultet
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Kompyuter savodxonligi
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Hayya 'alas
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