Medical Position Statement: The North American Society for Pediatric
Gastroenterology and Nutrition
Helicobacter pylori Infection in Children: Recommendations for
Diagnosis and Treatment
*Benjamin D. Gold, †Richard B. Colletti, ‡Myles Abbott, §Steven J. Czinn,
㛳Yoram Elitsur,
¶Eric Hassall, #Colin Macarthur, **John Snyder, and ††Philip M. Sherman
Division of *Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine,
Atlanta, Georgia; †Pediatric Gastroenterology, University of Vermont, Fletcher Allen Health Center, Burlington, Vermont;
‡Berkeley California; §Pediatric Gastroenterology, Rainbow Babies and Children’s Hospital, Cleveland, Ohio;
㛳Division of
Gastroenterology, Marshall University School of Medicine, Huntington, West Virginia; ¶Division of Gastroenterology, BC
Children’s Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; Divisions of #General Pediatrics and ††Gastroenterology and
Nutrition, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; and **Pediatric Gastroenterology, University of California
San Francisco, San Francisco, California, U.S.A.
Helicobacter pylori infects at least 50% of the world’s
human population (1). However, most individuals in-
fected with H. pylori do not experience symptoms or
have signs of recognizable disease. In most children, the
presence of H. pylori infection does not lead to clinically
apparent disease, even when the organism colonizing the
gastric mucosa causes chronic active gastritis (2).
Knowledge about H. pylori infection is evolving, par-
ticularly in the pediatric age group for which there are
still large gaps in knowledge.
Additional multicenter, randomized, placebo-
controlled treatment trials in children infected by H. py-
lori are critically needed to definitively characterize the
effect of H. pylori eradication treatment during child-
hood on symptoms and gastroduodenal mucosal disease.
There is compelling evidence that this organism is
associated with a significant proportion of duodenal ul-
cers and, to a lesser extent, with gastric ulcers in children
(3). There are epidemiologic data linking chronic H. py-
lori infection, probably beginning in childhood, with the
development of gastric adenocarcinoma and gastric lym-
phoma (4). Findings in recently reported animal models
support the role of H. pylori in the pathogenesis of gas-
tric cancers (5).
There are many studies describing the prevalence of
H. pylori infection. Most epidemiologic studies of H.
pylori infection have been performed in adults who had
been infected for many years before clinical symptoms
appeared (6). The incidence of H. pylori infection in
industrialized countries is estimated to be approximately
0.5% of the susceptible population per year. In contrast,
there is a significantly higher estimated incidence of H.
pylori infection in developing countries of approximately
3% to 10% per year (7). The limited data on the inci-
dence of H. pylori infection in children consist largely of
retrospective seroprevalence studies.
Humans appear to be the primary natural reservoir of
H. pylori infection. Other reservoirs that have been pro-
posed include water, domestic cats, and houseflies (8–
10). The risk factors described for acquiring infection
include residence in a developing country, poor socio-
economic conditions, family overcrowding, and possibly
an ethnic or genetic predisposition. In North America,
the prevalence rates of H. pylori among Asian-Ameri-
cans, African-Americans and Hispanics are similar to
those of residents of developing countries (11). The route
of transmission of H. pylori in humans is not known but
is postulated to be fecal-oral, gastric-oral (in vomitus), or
oral-oral (12).
Although H. pylori infection may be acquired during
childhood, there are limited guidelines regarding its di-
agnosis and treatment in children and adolescents. Such
evidence-based consensus guidelines are needed for both
primary care and specialty medical providers to ensure
judicious use of diagnostic testing and appropriate thera-
peutic regimens for the management of children with H.
pylori infection. Therefore, the North American Society
for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition (NASPGN)
appointed the Helicobacter pylori Infection Guideline
Committee to develop a clinical practice guideline for
the child with H. pylori infection.
Received and accepted September 8, 2000.
Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Benjamin Gold,
Emory University School of Medicine, 2040 Ridgewood Drive, NE,
Atlanta, GA 30322, U.S.A.; or to Dr. Richard B. Colletti, University of
Vermont, Department of Pediatrics, A-121 Given Medical Building,
Burlington, VT 05405-5557, U.S.A.
Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition
31:490–497 © November 2000 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc., Philadelphia
490
These clinical practice guidelines are designed to as-
sist primary care physicians, nurse practitioners, physi-
cian assistants, and pediatric gastroenterologists in the
evaluation and treatment of suspected or diagnosed H.
pylori–associated disease. The desired outcomes of these
recommendations are the detection of children and ado-
lescents with H. pylori who need treatment. These rec-
ommendations are applicable to children in developed
countries where the prevalence of infection is low but
may not be directly relevant to children living in com-
munities where there is a higher frequency of gastric
colonization by H. pylori. These recommendations have
been endorsed by the Executive Council of NASPGN
and by the American Academy of Pediatrics. They are
general guidelines to assist medical care providers in the
diagnosis and treatment of H. pylori infection in chil-
dren. They are not intended as a substitute for clinical
judgment or as a protocol for the management of all
patients.
In its deliberations, the committee addressed four is-
sues about H. pylori infection in children: How reliable
are tests to detect H. pylori? When is testing for H. pylori
indicated? When is treatment of H. pylori infection in-
dicated? What is the preferred treatment of H. pylori? A
summary of the recommendations of the H. pylori Infec-
tion Guideline Committee is presented in Table 1.
METHODS
The H. pylori Infection Guideline Committee consisted of a
primary care pediatrician, a clinical epidemiologist, and seven
pediatric gastroenterologists. To develop evidence-based
guidelines, articles published in English from January 1966
through May 1999 on H. pylori in children were searched.
Articles on diagnosis and treatment were sought separately.
Letters, editorials, case reports, abstracts, and reviews were
excluded. Evidence tables were prepared based on 16 articles
on clinical presentation, 9 articles on diagnostic studies, and 30
articles on therapy. Subsequently, additional articles were iden-
tified and reviewed. When the pediatric literature was insuffi-
cient, the adult literature was also considered. Articles were
evaluated using published criteria (13). The Committee based
its recommendations on an integration of a review of the medi-
cal literature and expert opinion. Consensus was achieved by
using the nominal group technique, a structured quantitative
method, as described previously (14,15). By using the methods
of the Canadian Preventive Services Task Force (16), the qual-
ity of evidence of each of the recommendations made by the
committee was determined and is summarized (Table 1).
HOW RELIABLE ARE TESTS FOR
H. PYLORI INFECTION?
Several invasive and noninvasive tests are available to
detect H. pylori infection (Table 2). An ideal test for H.
pylori is noninvasive or minimally invasive, highly ac-
curate, inexpensive, and readily available and enables
differentiation between active or past infection with the
TABLE 1. Summary of recommendations and the quality of
the supporting evidence
Recommendations
Quality of
evidence
a
How reliable are tests for H. pylori infection?
Currently, the diagnosis of H. pylori-mediated disease
can be made reliably only through the use of
endoscopy with biopsy.
II, III
Presently available commercial serologic tests are
frequently unreliable for screening children for the
presence of H. pylori infection.
II
Urea breath testing, although promising, has not been
studied sufficiently in children.
II
When is testing indicated?
It is recommended that testing be performed in
children with endoscopically diagnosed, or
radiographically definitive, duodenal or gastric ulcers.
I
It is recommended that children with recurrent
abdominal pain, in the absence of documented
ulcer disease, not be tested for H. pylori infection.
II
Testing for H. pylori infection is not recommended in
asymptomatic children.
II
Routine screening of children with a family history of
gastric cancer or recurrent peptic ulcer disease is
not recommended.
II
Testing following treatment of documented H. pylori
is recommended, especially with complicated
peptic ulcer disease (i.e., bleeding, perforation, or
obstruction). For patients who remain symptomatic
after treatment, it is recommended that endoscopy
and biopsy be performed to evaluate for the
persistence of H. pylori-associated peptic ulcer
disease.
I, II
If pathological evidence of MALT lymphoma is
documented, then testing for H. pylori is
recommended.
II
When is treatment of H. pylori infection indicated?
Eradication treatment is recommended for children who
have a duodenal ulcer or gastric ulcer identified at
endoscopy and H. pylori detected on histology.
I
A prior history of documented duodenal or gastric
ulcer disease is an indication for treatment if active
H. pylori infection is documented.
I
There is no compelling evidence for treating
children with H. pylori infection and non-ulcer
dyspepsia or functional recurrent abdominal pain.
III
Treatment is not recommended for H. pylori-infected
children residing in chronic care facilities; children
with unexplained short stature; or children at
increased risk for acquisition of infection, including
asymptomatic children who have a family member
with either peptic ulcer disease or gastric cancer.
III
What is the preferred treatment of H. pylori infections in children?
It is recommended that treatment consist of three or
four medications, given once or twice daily, for
one to two weeks.
I
a
Categories of the quallity of evidence: I Evidence obtained from at
least one properly designed randomized controlled study. II-1 Evidence
obtained from well-designed cohort or case-controlled trials without
randomization. II-2 Evidence obtained from well-designed cohort or
case-control analytic studies, preferably from more than one center or
research group. II-3 Evidence obtained from multiple time series with
or without the intervention. Dramatic results in uncontrolled experi-
ments (such as the results of the introduction of penicillin treatment in
the 1940’s) could also be regarded as this type of evidence. III Opinions
of respected authorities, based on clinical experience, descriptive stud-
ies, or reports of expert committees.
TREATMENT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR HELICOBACTER INFECTION
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J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr, Vol. 31, No. 5, November 2000
organism. In addition, such a test enables discrimination
between the presence of H. pylori infection and H. py-
lori–associated disease. Because no such ideal test cur-
rently exists, the advantages and drawbacks of tests that
are available require critical appraisal and must be as-
sessed for their suitability for use in children.
Failure to reach an accurate diagnosis carries consid-
erable financial and social costs including the expense of
more tests, repeated visits to health care providers, inap-
propriate treatment, and missed school or work. A de-
finitive test, even if it is expensive, may result in overall
cost savings (17).
It is important to emphasize that the accuracy of a
diagnostic test is greatly impacted by the prevalence of
H. pylori in the population tested. There is a need for
studies to assess the accuracy and potential utility of
various noninvasive diagnostic tests in populations in
North America that differ in demographic factors that
may influence the prevalence and natural history of H.
pylori infection (18).
Invasive Testing Through Endoscopy
Biopsies and Histopathology
The definitive diagnosis of H. pylori and the evidence
of the consequences of infection can be made reliably
only by endoscopy with multiple biopsy specimens ob-
tained in one or more regions of the stomach including
antrum, body, and transition zones (i.e., cardia and inci-
sura). Histology provides information regarding the pres-
ence of H. pylori and the severity and topographic dis-
tribution of gastritis including the presence of atrophic
gastritis, intestinal metaplasia, and mucosa-associated
lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma (3). As in adults,
biopsy specimens obtained in the prepyloric antrum have
the highest yield in H. pylori infection. Tissue specimens
often are also obtained from the body and the transition
zones of the stomach, particularly if the patient has re-
cently taken acid-suppressing medication (19). It is rec-
ommended that multiple biopsies be performed in chil-
dren with endoscopically documented peptic ulcer dis-
ease or peptic ulcer suspected as a result of radiographic
study. The optimal staining of biopsy sections is best
determined by local expert pathologists. Endoscopic ex-
amination of and specimens obtained in the esophagus,
stomach, and duodenum also provide information about
other upper gastrointestinal disorders that may be the
cause of clinical symptoms including, for example,
esophagitis and peptic ulcer disease that is not due to H.
pylori.
There are drawbacks to diagnostic gastrointestinal en-
doscopy. It is a relatively invasive procedure requiring
sedation or anesthesia. Furthermore, the test remains
relatively expensive in many centers, and access to an
endoscopist with specific pediatric expertise is limited in
many geographic areas.
Rapid Urease Testing of Biopsy Tissues
Urease testing (CLO, TriMed, Kansas City, MO; Hp-
Fast, GI Supply, Division of ChekMed Systems Inc.,
Camphill, PA; PyloriTek, Horizons International, Agua-
dilla, Puerto Rico) provides indirect identification of H.
pylori infection within a few hours of endoscopy (20).
However, these tests have a poor positive predictive
value (as low as 50%) in children, even though the nega-
tive predictive value is high (97–98%) (20,21). The ac-
curacy of the test is dependent on the number of tissue
specimens tested, the location of biopsy sites, bacterial
load, and previous usage of antibiotics and proton pump
inhibitors, as well as the prevalence of H. pylori in the
population tested.
Bacterial Culture
Culture of H. pylori from the gastric mucosa provides
an opportunity to obtain a profile of antibiotic sensitivity
that could identify potential treatment failure due to an-
tibiotic resistance (22). Culture also provides a bacterial
strain for use in epidemiologic studies to examine asso-
ciations of virulence characteristics with disease out-
come. However, bacterial culture for H. pylori is rela-
tively expensive and success rates for recovery of the
organism in many clinical laboratories are low (23). Cur-
rently, standardization of culture procedures has not been
established, and bacterial cultures are only obtained rou-
tinely in research settings.
Polymerase Chain Reaction
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a highly sensitive
technique that can be used to detect the presence of H.
pylori in body fluids (e.g., gastric juice and stool), tissues
(e.g., gastric mucosa), and water (24). Testing of H. py-
lori genomic DNA by PCR can be used to advance
knowledge at the molecular level—for example, by pro-
viding information about point mutations conferring
resistance to antibiotics and about putative bacterial
virulence factors. However, PCR is expensive, the assay
TABLE 2. Tests for Helicobacter pylori and
Helicobacter-related disorders
Invasive tests requiring endoscopy
Biopsies and histology
Rapid urease testing
Bacterial culture
Polymerase chain reaction of bacterial DNA
Non-invasive tests
Serum and whole blood antibody
Saliva antibody
Urine antibody
Stool antigen
Urea breath testing
GOLD ET AL.
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J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr, Vol. 31, No. 5, November 2000
is difficult to set up, specificity may be compromised by
inadvertent contamination, and it is not widely available
outside the research laboratory.
Noninvasive Testing
Immunoassay Tests to Detect H. pylori Antibodies
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) to
detect H. pylori antibodies are relatively inexpensive and
easy to implement in the clinical setting. Many tests are
available for use to test whole blood, plasma, or serum.
However, compared with histology, the sensitivity and
specificity of serologic assays are poor in both adults and
children unless used in the populations in which they
were initially developed (25). In general, the accuracy of
serum-based immunoassays and whole-blood tests for
use in the physician’s office in symptomatic children in
developed countries is poor, with a range of sensitivity of
only 60% to 70% (26–28). Furthermore, age-related cut-
off values for commercial immunologic tests have not
been established for children. One immunoassay devel-
oped in a research center to detect H. pylori–specific
immunoglobulin (Ig)G in children was 91% sensitive
compared with sensitivity of less than 70% in three com-
mercially available assays (28). In areas with low preva-
lence of H. pylori infection, such as in developed coun-
tries, testing of serum and whole blood is not sufficiently
accurate to diagnose H. pylori infection in children. Ac-
cordingly, treatment regimens based on the results of
these tests cannot be recommended. Serologic tests may
not be used reliably to verify eradication of H. pylori,
because antibody titers can remain positive for months,
despite resolution of infection.
Saliva and Urine Tests for H. pylori Antibodies
Similar to serologic tests, saliva-based tests also detect
the presence of H. pylori–specific IgG antibodies. The
tests are easy to perform, painless, and inexpensive. Sa-
liva tests are less sensitive than assays of serum or whole
blood (29). The protein concentration of saliva appears to
affect the accuracy of test results. Urine-based assays are
easy to perform, require minimal labor for collection,
and are painless (30). However, these assays are highly
variable and are not yet commercially available. There-
fore, saliva and urine assays for the detection of H. pylori
antibodies cannot be recommended.
Stool Test for H. pylori Antigens
Testing of H. pylori antigens in stools has shown
promising results in adults for the noninvasive diagnosis
of gastric infection using a commercially available kit
(31). Testing for H. pylori antigens in feces also appears
to be accurate for use in monitoring the success of eradi-
cation therapy. However, patients may be reluctant to
collect stool specimens. In addition, refrigerated stools
are more difficult to test. Additional pediatric studies
evaluating the accuracy of stool antigen testing for both
initial diagnosis and posttreatment follow-up are re-
quired before specific recommendations can be consid-
ered (32).
Urea Breath Testing
Urea breath tests are noninvasive and have high sen-
sitivity and specificity (>95%) both in adults (33) and
children (34,35). The test requires the ingestion of either
radiolabeled
14
C-urea or urea tagged with the stable iso-
tope
13
C. Test results may be influenced by concurrent
use of antibiotics and acid-suppressing medications and
by the presence of other urease-producing organisms
present in the oral cavity. Test parameters are currently
laboratory-specific (e.g., dosages for differing ages of
children, cutoff values, duration of fasting, use of a test
meal, times of sampling, and timing of posttherapy test-
ing) and have not been well standardized for children
(36). In addition, urea breath testing is technically more
difficult to perform in small children and infants, with
failure rates in collection up to 10%, especially outside
the clinical research setting (34).
In summary, the diagnosis of H. pylori–associated dis-
eases currently can be made reliably only by endoscopy
with biopsies. The most commonly used noninvasive test
to screen adults for H. pylori infection is serology. Un-
fortunately, currently available commercial serologic
tests are frequently unreliable for screening children for
the presence of H. pylori infection. Current whole-blood,
saliva, and urinary immunoassays are insufficiently sen-
sitive or specific to be effective as diagnostic tools. In-
sufficient data are available in children to confirm the
accuracy of the recently approved H. pylori stool antigen
test. The urea breath test has the promise to provide
noninvasive and accurate diagnosis of H. pylori infec-
tion; but currently, there is insufficient evidence that it
can be used to reliably diagnose or exclude H. pylori–
associated diseases.
WHEN IS TESTING INDICATED?
The primary goal of testing is to diagnose the cause of
clinical symptoms and not simply to detect the presence
of H. pylori infection. Testing is not helpful unless it will
alter the management of the disease.
A variety of invasive and noninvasive tests exist for
the detection of H. pylori infection, but their degree of
sensitivity and specificity vary, as do their suitability for
clinical use in children. Thus, there is potential for inap-
propriate testing or misuse of tests in children.
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Endoscopically Diagnosed or Radiographically
Definitive Peptic Ulcer
The causal relationship between H. pylori infection
and primary duodenal ulcers is compelling (37). There-
fore, it is recommended that testing for the presence of H.
pylori infection be performed in children with endo-
scopically diagnosed or radiographically definitive duo-
denal ulcer. Although the data in children are less com-
plete, evidence from studies in adults (38) supports the
recommendation that testing for H. pylori also be per-
formed in subjects with a documented gastric ulcer.
Abdominal Pain Unrelated to Peptic Ulcers
Several lines of evidence, including serologic surveys,
endoscopic evaluations, and treatment trials indicate that
H. pylori is not a frequent cause of recurrent abdominal
pain in children. There have been six studies performed
in North America, Europe, and Australia, with 2715 chil-
dren evaluated by esophagogastroduodenoscopy and bi-
opsy, serology, or urea breath test (39–44). Although 5%
to 17% of children with abdominal pain had evidence of
infection with H. pylori, 5% to 29% of children without
abdominal pain were also infected with H. pylori. There
are no convincing data to support routine testing of chil-
dren with recurrent abdominal pain (39–45). Investiga-
tors have also looked for specific symptom patterns in H.
pylori–infected children, but none so far has been de-
tected (46–50). Future studies are needed to determine
whether subsets of children with abdominal pain can be
identified in whom signs and symptoms are caused by H.
pylori infection. It is recommended that children with
recurrent abdominal pain, in the absence of documented
ulcer disease, not be tested for H. pylori infection.
Asymptomatic Children, Including Those at
Increased Risk of Acquiring H. pylori Infection
There are no compelling data to support routine testing
in asymptomatic children. Testing for H. pylori infection
is not recommended in children without clinical symp-
toms, including those residing in long-term care facili-
ties, children with short stature, and those at increased
risk of acquiring H. pylori infection. In addition, pur-
ported extraintestinal manifestations of H. pylori infec-
tion have not been demonstrated in a convincing fashion
(51). Accordingly, a test-and-treat approach is not rec-
ommended in these circumstances.
Family History of Gastric Cancer or Recurrent
Peptic Ulcer Disease
No currently available data support routine testing in
children with a positive family history of diseases related
to H. pylori infection (52). Epidemiologic evidence in-
dicates that there is a link between gastric cancers (both
adenocarcinoma and lymphoma) and H. pylori infection.
However, no studies have shown that H. pylori eradica-
tion during childhood prevents subsequent development
of gastric malignancies. Until evidence is available to
better define the role of H. pylori in a variety of gastric
cancers and the role of H. pylori eradication in disease
prevention, routine screening of children with a family
history of gastric cancer or recurrent peptic ulcer disease
is not recommended.
Histologic Evidence of Lymphoma
In the rare circumstance in which histopathologic evi-
dence of MALT lymphoma is documented in a child,
testing for H. pylori is recommended.
Follow-up of Therapy for H. pylori Infection
Testing to confirm eradication of infection and the
resolution of associated symptoms and disease sequelae
is advisable in selected children. Guidelines in adults
recommend testing after treatment of complicated peptic
ulcer (52), but studies in children are limited. As such,
few data are available on the effectiveness of therapy in
children, testing after treatment is recommended in those
with complicated peptic ulcer disease (i.e., bleeding, per-
foration, or obstruction) or lymphoma. For patients who
remain symptomatic, it is recommended that endoscopy
and biopsy be performed to evaluate for the persistence
of H. pylori-associated peptic ulcer disease. For patients
with an uncomplicated ulcer who are asymptomatic after
completion of eradication therapy, testing for persistence
of infection is not necessary. However, some physicians
advocate the use of urea breath testing in this clinical
setting.
WHEN IS TREATMENT OF H. PYLORI
INFECTION INDICATED?
Eradication therapy is recommended for children who
have both known active H. pylori infection and symp-
tomatic gastrointestinal disease. Known active H. pylori
infection is defined as identification of the organisms by
histopathologic examination or as a positive culture from
endoscopic gastric biopsy. Serology is not a reliable test
for active disease, because it may indicate past but not
current infection with H. pylori.
There are no randomized controlled trials in children
that determine the precise clinical settings in which
eradication therapy is indicated. Although additional
studies in children are needed (53), the available evi-
dence supports the following recommendations.
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Duodenal and Gastric Ulcers
Eradication treatment is recommended for children
who have a duodenal ulcer or gastric ulcer identified at
endoscopy and H. pylori documented by histopathology.
A prior history of duodenal or gastric ulcer disease is also
an indication for treatment if active H. pylori infection is
documented. If a definitive ulcer is present on contrast
radiography (e.g., an ulcer crater is present), eradication
therapy is indicated if either a noninvasive or invasive
test result is positive for H. pylori.
Lymphoma
The rare child with pathologic evidence of MALT
lymphoma and H. pylori infection should be treated with
eradication therapy. Further studies of pediatric patients
with lymphoma should be performed to monitor the re-
currence, progression, or remission of the tumor after
therapy.
Atrophic Gastritis With Intestinal Metaplasia
Eradication treatment is recommended for the rare
child who has pathologically proven atrophic gastritis
with intestinal metaplasia, according to the updated Syd-
ney classification of gastritis (54), plus coexisting H.
pylori infection. Because of the preneoplastic nature of
these pathologic changes, follow-up endoscopy is rec-
ommended to confirm that the H. pylori infection has
been eradicated and to ensure that there is no subsequent
progression of gastric mucosal disease.
Gastritis Without Peptic Ulcer Disease
The finding of H. pylori–associated gastritis in the
absence of peptic ulcer disease during diagnostic endos-
copy poses a dilemma for the endoscopist. The decision
to treat H. pylori–associated gastritis without duodenal or
gastric ulcer in this situation is subject to the judgment of
the clinician and deliberations with the patient and fam-
ily. Studies in adults on the effect of eradication treat-
ment on abdominal symptoms have produced conflicting
results (55–58). There are no randomized controlled tri-
als in children. The long-term impact of the eradication
of H. pylori and the healing of gastritis on the subsequent
development of peptic ulcer disease, adenocarcinoma, or
lymphoma is uncertain. Although there is a small life-
time risk of development of peptic ulcer disease associ-
ated with H. pylori gastritis, there are no randomized
controlled trials demonstrating that eradication of H. py-
lori results in prevention of peptic ulcer disease. In ad-
dition, there are no data showing that eradication therapy
influences the long-term risk for development of gastric
cancers. Antibiotic treatment can result in adverse drug
reactions, promote antibiotic resistance, and increase the
cost of care. Therefore, the H. pylori Infection Guideline
Committee concludes that there is insufficient evidence
to support either initiating or withholding eradication
treatment in this situation.
Recurrent Abdominal Pain and
Asymptomatic Children
There is no compelling evidence, at the present time,
for treating children with H. pylori infection and either
nonulcer dyspepsia or functional recurrent abdominal
pain. There is also no convincing evidence currently
available that asymptomatic children who have a family
member with H. pylori infection, peptic ulcer, or gastric
cancer need treatment.
WHAT IS THE PREFERRED TREATMENT OF
H. PYLORI INFECTION IN CHILDREN?
The optimum treatment regimen for eradicating H. py-
lori in children has not been determined (59). Effective
therapy in adults is defined as successful eradication of
H. pylori infection in a minimum of 80% of treated sub-
jects (60). Although it appears that treatment options that
have been effective in adults will also be efficacious in
children, controlled studies in pediatric populations are
needed to confirm or refute this supposition. Unfortu-
nately, the limited data currently available in children are
open-label, case series and uncontrolled, anecdotal ob-
servations that do not meet the minimum criteria for
determining efficacy. In vitro sensitivity of H. pylori to a
specific drug does not guarantee that the bacterium will
be effectively eradicated from the human stomach.
Therefore, current treatment strategies to eradicate H.
pylori have been developed primarily by trial-and-error
methodology (61).
The single most important determinant of successful
eradication therapy is compliance with the prescribed
combination treatment regimen (62). There are well-
described treatment failures due to suboptimal compli-
ance. To enhance adherence to the treatment regimen,
the number of medications prescribed, the frequency of
administration, and the duration of therapy are best kept
to the minimum required for successful treatment.
It is recommended that initial treatment consist of
three medications, administered twice daily, for 1 to 2
weeks (63). Specifically, as shown in Table 3, three first-
line therapy options are recommended for use in children
and adolescents. For patients in whom initial treatment
has failed, two other options are recommended, includ-
ing one option with four medications. It is recommended
that monotherapy and two-drug regimens be avoided,
because they are ineffective and increase the likelihood
TREATMENT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR HELICOBACTER INFECTION
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of acquired antibiotic resistance (64). Primary antimicro-
bial resistance also can result in treatment failure even
when a three- or four-drug regimen is used. Resistance of
H. pylori to nitroimidazoles causes an increase in the rate
of treatment failures in regimens using metronidazole.
An increasing prevalence of resistance to clarithromycin,
documented in the past few years, particularly in Europe,
could eventually impair the therapeutic effectiveness of
this antibiotic in H. pylori treatment regimens. Results in
some studies suggest that prior therapy with a proton
pump inhibitor also reduces the effectiveness of eradica-
tion treatment protocols. Studies are needed to determine
the relative importance of these risk factors in pediatric
populations.
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TABLE 3. Recommended eradication therapies for H. pylori
disease in children
First-line
options
Medications
Dosage
1
amoxicillin
50 mg/kg/day up to
1 g bid
clarithromycin
15 mg/kg/day up to
500 mg bid
proton pump inhibitor:
omeprazole (or comparable
acid inhibitory doses of
another PPI)
1 mg/kg/day up to 20
mg bid
2
amoxicillin
50 mg/kg/day up to
1 g bid
metronidazole
20 mg/kg/day–500
mg bid
proton pump inhibitor:
omeprazole (or comparable
acid inhibitory doses of
another PPI)
1 mg/kg/day up to 20
mg bid
3
clarithromycin
15 mg/kg/day up to
500 mg bid
metronidazole
20 mg/kg/day up to
500 mg bid
proton pump inhibitor:
omeprazole (or comparable
acid inhibitory doses of
another PPI)
1 mg/kg/day up to 20
mg bid
Second-line options
4
bismuth subsalicylate
1 tablet (262 mg) qid
or 15 ml (17.6
mg/mL qid)
metronidazole
20 mg/kg/day–500
mg bid
proteon pump inhibitor:
omeprazole (or comparable
acid inhibitory doses of
another PPI)
1 mg/kg/day up to 20
mg bid
pus, an additional antibiotic:
amoxicillin
50 mg/kg/day up to
1 g bid
or tetracycline
a
50 mg/kg/day up to
1 g bid
or clarithromycin
15 mg/kg/day–500
mg bid
5
ranitidine bismuth-citrate
1 tablet qid
clarithromycin
15 mg/kg/day–500
mg bid
metronidazole
20 mg/kg/day–500
mg bid
Initial treatment should be provided in a twice daily regimen (to
enhance compliance) for 7 to 14 days.
a
Only for children 12 years of age or older.
bid, twice daily; qid, four times daily.
GOLD ET AL.
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