Masaryk University Faculty of Arts Department of English and American Studies

4.3 Stress in Compounds

So far, we have mainly dealt with words in isolation and described how stress is placed depending on the properties of a word. However, connected speech does not consist of individual words, but rather uses larger units. While stress within individual words behaves in a certain way and is regulated by certain rules, the issue becomes more complicated when words are put next to each other – as is the case with compounds.
While compounds can, technically speaking, be taken as two words (e.g. ice cream), they in many ways act as a single word not only semantically but also accentually. In English it can generally be said that words tend to have main stress on one of the first two syllables (mostly antepenultimate or penultimate stress, rather than final stress). Thus, since compounds behave as a single word, they tend to bear primary stress on one of their initial two syllables as well i.e. within the compound’s first component (so called compound initial). However, since a word can not bear more than one primary stress, the compound initial tends to bear the primary stress while the second member does not (`ice ˌcream). Same remains true if the compound becomes even more complex (such as ice cream cone), that is, the primary stress will still remain within the initial member of the compound. Note, however, that while the initial member of a compound is the most prominent due to its stress, it is not the most prominent from the semantic point of view. While the word floorboard does bear primary stress, it is a type of board, not a certain kind of floor, just as ice cream cone is a kind of cone, not a kind of ice cream.
Not all words put next to each other are compounds however. Though they both may signify a single object, a distinction must be made between a compound and a phrase. Generally speaking, the relationship between words in a phrase is much looser than that between words in a compound. The individual words of a phrase can quite easily be modified and extended as can be for example seen in the noun phrase black board (i.e. a board which is black). There can be a pitch-black board; there can be a very big, black, broad board, while there can hardly be a very `blackˌboard (i.e. a board for writing on with chalk). Thus phrases are not treated as a single word but rather as a sequence of multiple individual words and tend to bear primary stress within their last component (ˈblack `board).
Unfortunately the distinction between compounds and phrases is sometimes not as clear as one might hope. There exists a number of constructions which take phrasal stress patterns while being almost, or indeed completely, indistinguishable syntactically from compounds. While Christmas cake takes on the usual compound stress pattern (`Christmas ˌcake), ˈChristmas `pie or ˈChristmas `pudding are stressed as if they were a noun phrase, even though there is syntactically no difference between the three. Similarly, while proper names containing the words –gate or Street (such as `London ˌStreet) take stress on the compound initial, combinations with other words of the kind (such as Avenue or Road) take final stress as a noun phrase would. It is therefore necessary to draw a certain set of rules when dealing with the issue:

1. 
   Noun1 + Noun2 = Noun compounds are in the majority of cases initially stressed. The exceptions to this rule can be categorized into six groups:
   
   1. 
      Noun1 is a location (e.g. ˈkitchen `table) or a time/season (e.g. ˈmorning `rain)
      
   2. 
      Noun1 is a material which Noun2 is made out of e.g. ˈwooden `plank
      
   3. 
      Noun2 is a geographical term, a type of thoroughfare etc. and Noun1 is the name applied to it (often proper noun) e.g. ˈOhio `Valley
      
   4. 
      Noun1 and Noun2 are two parts of a proper name of a person, place or thing (e.g. ˈPeter `Parker, ˈBuckingˌham `Palace)
      
   5. 
      Noun1 specifies the value of Noun2 (e.g. ˈdollar `bill)
      
   6. 
      Noun1 is central from semantic point of view and Noun2 only further specifies it, which is the opposite of a usual noun + noun compound (e.g. ˈMother `Superior)
      
2. 
   Adjective + Noun = Noun constructions normally form a noun phrase and are final stressed. If the relationship between the two members is so close as to not allow extension or modification, the unit forms a compound noun with initial stress. This happens if the compound signifies a person or a thing characterized by having (noun) which is (adjective). A model example of this would be a `redˌskin (a member of a race with red skin = Native American) or a `highˌbrow (a person with a high brow = intellectual). Alternatively, the same relationship can develop if the compound signifies a person or a thing whose characteristics are specified as or which is metaphorically related to what the adjective + noun phrase signifies, e.g. tightrope (it is a tight rope, however it is a one used specifically for walking in circuses and similar acts).
   
3. 
   Adjective + Noun = Adjective constructions may sometimes form from adjective + noun noun phrases. As an adjective compound, they usually bear initial stress (e.g. `old-ˌtime).
   
4. 
   Noun1 + s + Noun2 = Noun phrases (final stress) can sometimes be transformed into a more close-knit compound noun with initial stress. Usually has metaphorical meaning e.g. `bullsˌeye.
   
5. 
   Numeral + Noun + -er = Noun compounds (e.g. six-shooter) bear final stress.
   
6. 
   Adjective + Noun + -er = Noun compounds (e.g. `flat-ˌracer) normally bear the same stress as the Adjective + Noun combination would on its own (`flat ˌrace). The -er suffix is stress-neutral.
   
7. 
   Verb + Noun = Noun combinations bear initial stress (e.g. `runˌway).
   
8. 
   Noun + Verb = Noun combinations bear initial stress (e.g. `sunˌset)
   
9. 
   Noun1 + Noun2 + -ed = Adjective compounds are final stressed (e.g. ˈeagle-`eyed)
   
10. 
    Numeral + Noun + -ed = Adjective compounds are final stressed (ˈtwo-`headed).
    
11. 
    Adjective + Noun + -ed = Adjective compounds are final stressed (ˈstrong-`willed).
    
12. 
    Noun + Adjective = Adjective compounds with the meaning (adjective) to the extent of (noun) or as (adjective) as (noun) e.g. ˈblood-`red, ˈdirt `cheap are final stressed; compounds meaning (adjective) with respect to (noun) are initial stressed (e.g. `waterˈproof, `homeˈsick).
    
13. 
    Noun + Verb + -ed = Adjective compounds are initial stressed (e.g. `hen-ˌpecked, `disease-ˌridden) except for all compounds with -made and -plated.
    
14. 
    Noun + Verb = Verb compounds are initial stressed (e.g. `babyˌsit).
    
15. 
    Noun1 + Noun2 = Verb compounds without a derivational suffix follow the stressing of the original compound noun (e.g. ˈstone`wall).
    
16. 
    Adverb + Verb = Verb compounds are final stressed (e.g. ˈcross-`reference).
    
17. 
    Perposition + Noun = Adverb compounds are final stressed (e.g. ˈover`board).
    
18. 
    Preposition + Noun = Adjective compounds derived from the type 17 compounds above are initial stressed (`downˌstream).
    
19. 
    Verb + Particle = Noun compounds bear initial stress (`setˌback).
    
20.