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1.2 Types of phraseological units
There are various ways and sources of the origin of phraseological units in the English language. The consideration of the origin of phraseological units contributes to a better understanding of phraseological meaning. As any lexical item they can be divided into two large groups that is they can be either native English by origin or borrowed from other languages. Let us consider the main sources of native and borrowed phraseological units in English. The majority of phraseological units in English are native English. In most cases the creators of them are unknown. The main sources of native phraseological units are: Terminological and professional lexics, for example physics: center of gravity (центр тяжіння), specific weight (питома вага); navigation: to cut the painter (обрубати канат; to become independent), to lower one’s colours (спустити свій прапор; to yield, to give in); sphere: to fall into line (встати в стрій; to conform/agree with others), to draw one’s/the enemy’s fire (to cause somebody to concentrate attack, criticism, etc. in a particular direction); sports: to hit below the belt (нанести удар нижче пояса, зрадливий удар). British literature. The majority of them come from Shakespeare’s writings: the green-eyed monster (jealousy), to one’s heart’s content (as much as one wants), cakes and ale (material comforts, merry-making), the salt of youth (enjoyable living), a fool’s paradise (illusory happiness, the world of dreams), like Hamlet without the prince (the most important person at event is absent). Other writers who contributed to the stock of phraseological units are J. Milton: to fall evil days (to live in poverty after having enjoyed better times); J. Swift: all the world and his wife (many, everyone without exception), to quarrel with one’s bread and butter (to quit the job that provides means of existence); W. M. Thackeray: a skeleton in the cupboard (something in one’s family which is kept concealed); Ch. Dickens: never say die (do not give up hope in a difficult situation); W. Scott: to catch somebody red-handed (to discover somebody while he is doing something wrong) and others. British customs and traditions. Example: a baker’s dozen (a group of thirteen), in the past British merchants of bread received from bakers thirteen loaves instead of twelve and the thirteenth loaf was merchant’s profit. Superstitions and legends: a black sheep (a less successful or more immoral person in a family or a group), people believed that a black ship was marked by the devil. Historical facts and events, personalities. Examples: blue stocking – one admiral from Holland called the members of one literary society “the gathering of blue stockings” because one of scientists appeared there in blue stockings; to do a Thatcher (to stay in power as Prime Minister for three consecutive terms), from the former Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher; according to Cocker (according to rules), Cocker is the author of a text-book on arithmetic in the 17th century; Queen Ann is dead! (iron. It was known long ago). Phenomena and facts of everyday life: carry coals to Newcastle (to take something to a place where there is plenty of it available), Newcastle is a town in Northern England where a lot of coal was produced; to get out of wood (to be saved from danger or difficulty). Phraseological units borrowed from other languages entered English phraseology through both literary sources and oral contacts with other nations. The main sources of borrowed phraseological units are: The Bible – the most important source of borrowed phraseology. The idioms borrowed from the bible are quite numerous: forbidden fruit (something that is desired because it is forbidden of disapproved of), the root of all devil (money), the olive branch (the symbol of peace and quiet), new vine in old bottles (new contents in the old shape), a wolf in a sheep’s clothing (a person who appears to be friendly, or harmless, but is really an enemy or evil-doer), can the leopard change his sports? (some cannot change some of their habits or manners, behavior), pride goes before a fall (pride is a sin that leads to a collapse), the left hand does not know what the right hand is doing (communication in an organization is bad so that one part does not know what is happening in another part). Ancient legends and myths: to cut the Gordian knot (to deal with a difficult problem in a strong, simple and effective way), the apple of discord (a reason for quarrel), an Achilles’ heel (a weakness or fault which may not be known but which when discovered can be used to damage or destroy somebody), a Trojan horse (a disguised means of introducing something harmful or disadvantageous), a bed of roses (happy careless life). Fairy-tales: an ugly duckling (a child, chick, puppy, etc. born less attractive than his brothers or sisters who later surprises them), Alladdin’s lamp (a thing of magic which fulfills every wish of its master). Facts and events of the world history. Example: to cross the Rubicon (to do something which will have very important results which cannot be changed after), Julius Caesar started a war which resulted in victory for him by crossing the river Rubicon in Italy. Another example: to meet one’s Waterloo (to be faced with a final defeat, especially after previous success, a difficulty or obstacle one cannot overcome), from the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815. Variants of the English language. There are a lot of Americanisms among English phraseological units: a heavy hitter (someone who is powerful and has achieved a lot), to look/feel like a million dollars (to feel and look fine), to cut a pie (to interfere), to smoke the pipe of peace (to make peace), the last of the Mohicans (a man possessing some rare qualities). Other languages (both classical and modern): second to none (equal with any other and better than most) from Latin, for somebody’s fair eyes (because of personal sympathy, for nothing) from French, the fair sex (women) from French, let the cat out of the bag (to reveal a secret carelessly or by mistake) from German, blue blood (aristocracy) from Spanish, every dog is a lion at home (to feel significant in the familiar surrounding) from Italian, the Sick Man of Europe (originally Turkey, at present any European country in a difficult economic position) from Russian.
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