Resisting Situational Influences and Celebrating Heroism
487
in those studies and many others, while the majority obeyed, conformed, com-
plied, were persuaded, and were seduced, there was always a minority who re-
sisted, dissented, and disobeyed. In one sense, heroism lies in the ability to resist
powerful situational forces that so readily entrap most people.
Are the personalities of the resisters different from those of the blindly obedi-
e n t ?
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Are they like Clark Kent, whose normal appearance conceals Superman's
extraordinary powers? Not at all. Rather, our banality of heroism conception
maintains that doers of heroic deeds of the moment are not essentially different
from those who comprise the base rate of the easily seduced. There is not much
empirical research on which to base such assertions. Because heroism is not a
simple phenomenon that c a n be studied systematically, it defies clean definitions
and on-the-spot data collection. Heroic acts are ephemeral and unpredictable,
and appreciation of them is decidedly retrospective. Because heroes are usually
interviewed months or years after their heroic behavior has occurred, there are
no prospective studies of what the photographer Henri Cartier-Bresson might call
the "decisive moment" of heroic a c t i o n .
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Generally we do not know what the de-
cision matrix for heroes is at the time they elect to engage in risk-laden activities.
What seems evident is that heroic behavior is rare enough not to be readily
predictable by any psychological assessments of personality. They measure indi-
vidual differences between people in their usual, standard behavioral settings, not
in the atypical settings that often elicit heroic deeds.
Lieutenant Alexander (Sandy) Nininger is a case example of a heroic soldier
who engaged in extraordinarily fearless and ferocious fighting during World
War II's infamous Battle of Bataan. This twenty-three-year-old West Point gradu-
ate volunteered to go hunting for Japanese snipers where the fighting was most
intense. With grenades, a rifle, submachine gun, and bayonet, Nininger killed
many Japanese soldiers single-handedly in intense close combat, and kept fight-
ing although repeatedly wounded. Only after he had destroyed an enemy bunker
did he collapse and die. His heroism earned him the Medal of Honor, posthu-
mously, the first given in that war.
What makes this hero an object of our concern is that nothing from his past
would have predicted that he would engage in such killing. This quiet, sensitive,
intellectual young man had gone on record as saying that he could never kill any-
one out of hatred. Yet, he had done so repeatedly without regard for his own
safety. Had he been given all available personality tests, would they have helped
predict this unexpectedly violent behavior? In his review of personality testing,
the author Malcolm Gladwell surmises that Nininger's file might be as thick as a
phone book, but "his file will tell us little about the one thing we're most interested
in. For that, we have to join him in the jungles of Bataan." In short, we have to un-
derstand the Person in the Situation.
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The Lucifer Effect
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