Resisting Situational Influences and Celebrating Heroism
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Senator John McCain, himself a hero who resisted giving any military infor-
mation in spite of being subjected to extreme torture, believes that the concept of
heroism might be broadened beyond physical risk and suffering. McCain con-
tends that "the standard of courage remains, as I think it should, acts that risk life
or limb or other very serious personal injuries for the sake of others or to uphold
a virtue—a standard often upheld by battlefield heroics but one that is certainly
not limited to martial valor."
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Each of these descriptions of heroic behavior
equates the characteristics found in physical and civil heroism while pointing out
critical differences between them.
The various conceptions of heroism also roughly map onto ideas of courage,
justice, and transcendence that Seligman and his colleagues developed as part of
their classification system for virtues and strengths. For example, the virtue of
courage is erected on four character strengths that include authenticity, bravery
(roughly similar to intrepidity), persistence (similar to fortitude), and zest. Justice
is noted as another virtue. Fairness, leadership, and teamwork are subsumed
within this virtue. In practice, the concept of service to a noble cause or ideal is
often ultimately a matter of justice, for example, the abolition of slavery. Finally,
transcendence is another of the virtues that touches on heroism insofar as it is
the strength that forces connection to the larger universe and gives meaning to
our actions and existence. While not articulated in the literature on heroism,
transcendence may be related to Webster's 1 9 1 3 conception of fortitude in heroic
behavior. Transcendence may allow an individual involved in a heroic act to re-
main detached from the negative consequences, anticipated or revealed, that are
associated with his or her behavior. In order to be heroic, one must rise above the
immediate risks and perils that heroism necessarily entails, either by reframing
the nature of the risks or by altering their significance relevant to "higher-order"
values.
A New Taxonomy of Heroism
Stimulated by thinking about the heroic behaviors associated with the Stanford
Prison Experiment, I began a fuller exploration of this intriguing topic in dia-
logues with my psychology colleague Zeno Franco. We first broadened the con-
ception of heroic risk, then proposed an enhanced definition of heroism, and
finally generated a new taxonomy of heroism. It seemed apparent that risk or sac-
rifice should not be limited to an immediate threat to physical integrity or death.
The risk component in heroism can be any serious threat to the quality of life. For
example, heroism might include persistent behavior in the face of known long-
term threats to health or serious financial consequences; to the loss of social or
economic status; or to ostracism. Because this broadens the definition of heroism
considerably, it also seemed necessary to rule out some forms of apparent heroism
that might, in fact, not be heroic but "pseudoheroic."
In his book The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America, Daniel Boorstin
deflates the modern confluence of heroism with celebrity. "Two centuries ago
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The Lucifer Effect
when a great man appeared, people looked for God's purpose in him; today we
look for his press agent Among the ironic frustrations of our age, none is more
tantalizing than these efforts of ours to satisfy our extravagant expectations of
human greatness. Vainly do we make scores of artificial celebrities grow where
nature planted only a single h e r o . "
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Another example of what heroism is not can be seen in a children's book on
American heroes that offers fifty examples.
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Its stories of heroism actually point
to a group of activities or roles that are necessary but insufficient to warrant true
heroic status. All of the examples are role models upheld as worthy of emulation,
but only a fraction meet the definitional requirements of hero status. Not all mav-
ericks, warriors, or saints are heroes. The hero must embody a combination of de-
liberate nobility and potential sacrifice. Sometimes individuals are accorded hero
status when not deserved by their actions, but they become so for some purpose of
an agency or government. These "pseudoheroes" are media creations promoted by
powerful systemic forces.
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Heroes are rewarded in various ways for their heroic deeds, but if they antici-
pate secondary gain at the time of their act they must necessarily be disqualified
from heroic status. However, if secondary gains are accrued subsequent to their
act without prior anticipation of or motivation to attain them, the act still quali-
fies as heroic. The point is that a heroic act is sociocentric and not egocentric.
Heroism can be defined as having four key features: (a) it must be engaged in
voluntarily; (b) it must involve a risk or potential sacrifice, such as the threat of
death, an immediate threat to physical integrity, a long-term threat to health, or
the potential for serious degradation of one's quality of life; (c) it must be con-
ducted in service to one or more other people or the community as a whole; and
(d) it must be without secondary, extrinsic gain anticipated at the time of the act.
Heroism in service of a noble idea is usually not as dramatic as physical-risk
heroism. However, physical-risk heroism is often the result of a snap decision, a
moment of action. Further, physical-risk heroism usually involves a probability,
not the certainty, of serious injury or death. The individual performing the act is
generally removed from the situation after a short period of time. On the other
hand, it might be argued that some forms of civil heroism are more heroic than
physical risk forms of heroism. People such as Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther
King, Jr., and Dr. Albert Schweitzer willingly and knowingly submitted to the tri-
als of heroic civil activity day after day for much of their adult lives. In this sense,
the risk associated with physical-risk heroism is better termed peril, while the risk
involved in civil heroism is considered sacrifice.
Sacrifice entails costs that are not time-limited. Typically, civil heroes have
the opportunity to carefully review their actions and to weigh the consequences
of their decisions. Each might have chosen to retreat from the cause he champi-
oned because the cost of his or her actions had become too burdensome, yet they
did not. Each of these individuals risked their quality of life on many levels. Their
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