participants believed that the shock level was an average response of their team
310 The Lucifer Effect
rather than when it was the direct level of each individual's personal decision. As
we have seen before, diffusion of responsibility, in any form it takes, lowers the in-
hibition against harming others. As one might predict, the very highest levels of
shock—and anticipated harm—were administered both when participants felt
less personally responsible and when their victims were dehumanized.
When Bandura's research team evaluated how the participants had justified
their performance, they found that dehumanization promoted the use of self-
absolving justifications, which in turn were associated with increasing punish-
ment. These findings about how people disengage their usual self-sanctions
against behaving in ways that are detrimental to others led Bandura to develop a
conceptual model of "moral disengagement."
Mechanisms of Moral Disengagement
This model begins by assuming that most people adopt moral standards because
of undergoing normal socialization processes during their upbringing. Those
standards act as guides for prosocial behavior and deterrents of antisocial behav-
ior as defined by their family and social community. Over time, these external
moral standards imposed by parents, teachers, and other authorities become in-
ternalized as codes of personal conduct. People develop personal controls over
their thoughts and actions that become satisfying and provide a sense of self-
worth. They learn to sanction themselves to prevent acting inhumanely and to
foster humane actions. The self-regulatory mechanisms are not fixed and static in
their relation to a person's moral standards. Rather, they are governed by a dy-
namic process in which moral self-censure c a n be selectively activated to engage
in acceptable conduct; or, at other times, moral self-censure can be disengaged
from reprehensible conduct. Individuals and groups c a n maintain their sense
of moral standards by simply disengaging their usual moral functioning at cer-
tain times, in certain situations, for certain purposes, ft is as if they shift their
morality into neutral gear and coast along without concern for hitting pedestri-
ans until they later shift back to a higher gear, returning to higher moral ground.
Bandura's model goes further in elucidating the specific psychological mech-
anisms individuals generate to convert their harmful actions into morally accept-
able ones as they selectively disengage the self-sanctions that regulate their
behavior. Because this is such a fundamental human process, Bandura argues
that it helps to explain not only political, military, and terrorist violence but also
"everyday situations in which decent people routinely perform activities that fur-
ther their interests but have injurious human effects."
1 7
It becomes possible for any of us to disengage morally from any sort of de-
structive or evil conduct when we activate one or more of the following four types
of cognitive mechanisms.
First, we can redefine our harmful behavior as honorable. Creating moral
justification for the action, by adopting moral imperatives that sanctify violence,
does this. Creating advantageous comparisons that contrast our righteous behav-
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