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The Lucifer Effect
refuse to execute these men, women, and children. The records indicate that at
first about half the men refused and let the other police reservists engage in the
mass murder. But over time, social modeling processes took over, as did guilt-
induced persuasion by those reservists who had been doing the shooting, along
with the usual group conformity pressures of "how would they be seen in the eyes
of their comrades." By the end of their deadly journey, up to 90 percent of the
men in Battalion 1 0 1 were blindly obedient to their battalion leader and were per-
sonally involved in the shootings. Many of them posed proudly for photographs of
their up-close and personal killing of Jews. Like those who took photos of the pris-
oner abuse at Abu Ghraib Prison, these policemen posed in their "trophy photos"
as proud destroyers of the Jewish menace.
Browning makes it clear that there was no special selection of these men, nor
self-selection, nor self-interest or careerism that could account for these mass
murders. Instead, they were as "ordinary" as can be imagined—until they were
put into a novel situation in which they had "official" permission and encourage-
ment to act sadistically against people who were arbitrarily labeled as the
"enemy." What is most evident in Browning's penetrating analysis of these daily
acts of human evil is that these ordinary men were part of a powerful authority
system, a political police state with ideological justifications for destroying Jews
and intense indoctrination of the moral imperatives of discipline and loyalty and
duty to the state.
Interestingly, for the argument that I have been making that experimental re-
search can have real-world relevance, Browning compared the underlying mecha-
nisms operating in that far-off land at that distant time to the psychological
processes at work in both the Milgram obedience studies and our Stanford Prison
Experiment. The author goes on to note, "Zimbardo's spectrum of guard behavior
bears an uncanny resemblance to the groupings that emerged within Reserve Po-
lice Battalion 1 0 1 " (p. 1 6 8 ) . He shows how some became sadistically "cruel and
tough," enjoying the killing, whereas others were "tough, but fair" in "playing
the rules," and a minority qualified as "good guards" who refused to kill and did
small favors for the Jews.
The psychologist Ervin Staub (who as a child survived the Nazi occupation of
Hungary in a "protected house") concurs that most people under particular cir-
cumstances have a capacity for extreme violence and destruction of human life.
From his attempt to understand the roots of evil in genocide and mass violence
around the world, Staub has come to believe that "Evil that arises out of ordinary
thinking and is committed by ordinary people is the norm, not the e x c e p t i o n . . . .
Great evil arises out of ordinary psychological processes that evolve, usually with
a progression along the continuum of destruction." He highlights the signifi-
cance of ordinary people being caught up in situations where they can learn to
practice evil acts that are demanded by higher-level authority systems: "Being
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