intellectual respectability to classroom practices which looked beyond
grammatical accuracy as the primary goal of language teaching and
learning. A concern for communicative competence prompted teachers
and materials designers to contextualise the target language by placing it in
‘real-world’ situations, in the hope of making it ‘authentic’. Even by the
early 1980s, however, there were suggestions that ELT practitioners had
distorted the notion of communicative competence. Loveday (1981: 61)
argues:
Unfortunately, many theorists and teachers have come to equate the
concept of communicative competence with spontaneous self-expres-
sion, probably because they have taken the term absolutely literally as
the ability to communicate. This interpretation is not only trite but also
shows a grave lack of understanding of what is involved.
In order to transmit and decode meaning, we must do more than arrange
our sounds and words in a special order. One has to be aware of the diverse
ways of constructing a message, of the guidelines which, rarely obvious
and definable, constitute unquestioned principles of presenting the sound
and word patterns together with other symbols. This code for our verbal
conduct is our communicative competence and it fulfils a multitude of
social functions and is largely determined by the sociocultural system.
If it is perhaps overstating the case to argue that the notion of commu-
nicative competence had become ‘trite’, it is certainly true that its
transactional character – that is, the focus on knowledge of how to
do
things
with language – had overshadowed its cultural aspects. In the same year as
Loveday’s book was published, Morrow and Johnson’s
Communication in
the Classroom
(1981) set out to guide teachers in the classroom applications
of the communicative approach. Addressing the issue of ‘structural com-
petence’ existing alongside ‘communicative incompetence’, Johnson sees
the solution lying in the adoption of a notional-functional syllabus and the
implementation of needs analysis, while Morrow advocates the use of
information gap activities as the core type of classroom activity. These
com ponents of communicative language teaching were enormously influ-
ential, and they assumed that language was largely concerned with ‘doing
things’. In time, whole branches of communicative language teaching – the
‘procedural’ or ‘task-based’ approach to learning – grew out of this
intimate association of language use and transactional purpose.
In Europe, the notional-functional syllabus enjoyed strong institutional
backing – indeed it grew out of an initiative by the Council of Europe to
develop a pan-European system of teaching suitable for the languages of
all of the Council’s member countries. Wilkins (1972, 1976) proposed a
syllabus organised not according to increasingly complex grammatical
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