John Steinbeck in 1939 Born

D. H. Lawrence

D. H. Lawrence, 1929
Born	David Herbert Lawrence 11 September 1885 Eastwood, Nottinghamshire, England
Died	2 March 1930 (aged 44) Vence, Alpes-Maritimes Department, France
Resting place	D. H. Lawrence Ranch, Taos, New Mexico
Occupation	Novelist, poet
Nationality	British
Alma mater	University College Nottingham
Period	1907–1930
Genre	Modernism
Notable works	Novels: Sons and Lovers The Rainbow Women in Love John Thomas and Lady Jane Lady Chatterley's Lover Short stories: Odour of Chrysanthemums The Virgin and the Gypsy The Rocking-Horse Winner

David Herbert Lawrence (11 September 1885 – 2 March 1930) was an English writer and poet. His collected works represent, among other things, an extended reflection upon the dehumanising effects of modernity and industrialisation. Lawrence's writing explores issues such as sexuality, emotional health, vitality, spontaneity, and instinct. His works include Sons and Lovers, The Rainbow, Women in Love, and Lady Chatterley's Lover.

Lawrence's opinions earned him many enemies and he endured official persecution, censorship, and misrepresentation of his creative work throughout the second half of his life, much of which he spent in a voluntary exile he called his "savage pilgrimage".^[1] At the time of his death, his public reputation was that of a pornographer who had wasted his considerable talents. E. M. Forster, in an obituary notice, challenged this widely held view, describing him as "the greatest imaginative novelist of our generation."^[2] Later, the literary critic F. R. Leavis championed both his artistic integrity and his moral seriousness.

Contents

• 
  1Life and career
  
  • 
    1.1Early life
    
  • 
    1.2Early career
    
  • 
    1.3Exile
    
  • 
    1.4Later life and career
    
  • 
    1.5Death
    
• 
  2Written works
  
  • 
    2.1Novels
    
  • 
    2.2Short stories
    
  • 
    2.3Poetry
    
  • 
    2.4Literary criticism
    
  • 
    2.5Plays
    
• 
  3Painting
  
• 
  4Lady Chatterley trial
  
• 
  5Philosophy and politics
  
• 
  6Posthumous reputation
  
• 
  7Selected depictions of Lawrence's life
  
• 
  8Works
  
  • 
    8.1Novels
    
  • 
    8.2Short-story collections
    
  • 
    8.3Collected letters
    
  • 
    8.4Poetry collections
    
  • 
    8.5Plays
    
  • 
    8.6Non-fiction books and pamphlets
    
  • 
    8.7Travel books
    
  • 
    8.8Works translated by Lawrence
    
  • 
    8.9Manuscripts and early drafts of works
    
  • 
    8.10Paintings
    
• 
  9See also
  
• 
  10References
  
• 
  11Further reading
  
  • 
    11.1Bibliographic resources
    
  • 
    11.2Biographical studies
    
  • 
    11.3Literary criticism
    
• 
  12External links
  
  • 
    12.1Lawrence archives
    

Life and career[edit]

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Early life[edit]

Lawrence at age 21 in 1906

The fourth child of Arthur John Lawrence, a barely literate miner at Brinsley Colliery, and Lydia Beardsall, a former pupil-teacher who had been forced to perform manual work in a lace factory due to her family's financial difficulties,^[3] Lawrence spent his formative years in the coal mining town of Eastwood, Nottinghamshire. The house in which he was born, 8a Victoria Street, is now the D. H. Lawrence Birthplace Museum. His working-class background and the tensions between his parents provided the raw material for a number of his early works. Lawrence roamed out from an early age in the patches of open, hilly country and remaining fragments of Sherwood Forest in Felley woods to the north of Eastwood, beginning a lifelong appreciation of the natural world, and he often wrote about "the country of my heart"^[4] as a setting for much of his fiction.

The young Lawrence attended Beauvale Board School^[5] (now renamed Greasley Beauvale D. H. Lawrence Primary School in his honour) from 1891 until 1898, becoming the first local pupil to win a county council scholarship to Nottingham High School in nearby Nottingham. He left in 1901,^[6] working for three months as a junior clerk at Haywood's surgical appliances factory, but a severe bout of pneumonia ended this career. During his convalescence he often visited Hagg's Farm, the home of the Chambers family, and began a friendship with Jessie Chambers. An important aspect of this relationship with Chambers and other adolescent acquaintances was a shared love of books,^[7] an interest that lasted throughout Lawrence's life.

In the years 1902 to 1906 Lawrence served as a pupil-teacher at the British School, Eastwood. He went on to become a full-time student and received a teaching certificate from University College, Nottingham (then an external college of University of London), in 1908. During these early years he was working on his first poems, some short stories, and a draft of a novel, Laetitia, which was eventually to become The White Peacock. At the end of 1907 he won a short story competition in the Nottinghamshire Guardian,^[7] the first time that he had gained any wider recognition for his literary talents.

Early career[edit]

In the autumn of 1908, the newly qualified Lawrence left his childhood home for London.^[7] While teaching in Davidson Road School, Croydon, he continued writing.^[8] Jessie Chambers submitted some of Lawrence's early poetry to Ford Madox Ford (then known as Ford Hermann Hueffer), editor of the influential The English Review.^[8] Hueffer then commissioned the story Odour of Chrysanthemums which, when published in that magazine, encouraged Heinemann, a London publisher, to ask Lawrence for more work. His career as a professional author now began in earnest, although he taught for another year.

Shortly after the final proofs of his first published novel, The White Peacock, appeared in 1910, Lawrence's mother died of cancer. The young man was devastated, and he was to describe the next few months as his "sick year". Due to Lawrence's close relationship with his mother, his grief became a major turning point in his life, just as the death of his character, Mrs. Morel, is a major turning point in his autobiographical novel Sons and Lovers, a work that draws upon much of the writer's provincial upbringing. Essentially concerned with the emotional battle for Lawrence's love between his mother and "Miriam" (in reality Jessie Chambers), the novel also documents Lawrence's (through his protagonist, Paul) brief intimate relationship with Chambers that Lawrence had finally initiated in the Christmas of 1909, ending it in August 1910.^[9] The hurt this caused Chambers and finally, by her portrayal in the novel ended their friendship;^[10] after it was published, they never spoke again.

In 1911, Lawrence was introduced to Edward Garnett, a publisher's reader, who acted as a mentor and became a valued friend, as did his son David. Throughout these months, the young author revised Paul Morel, the first draft of what became Sons and Lovers. In addition, a teaching colleague, Helen Corke, gave him access to her intimate diaries about an unhappy love affair, which formed the basis of The Trespasser, his second novel. In November 1911, Lawrence came down with a pneumonia again; once recovered, he abandoned teaching in order to become a full-time writer. In February 1912, he broke off an engagement to Louie Burrows, an old friend from his days in Nottingham and Eastwood.^[8]

In March 1912, Lawrence met Frieda Weekley (née von Richthofen), with whom he was to share the rest of his life. Six years his senior, she was married to Ernest Weekley, his former modern languages professor at University College, Nottingham, and had three young children. However, she and Lawrence eloped and left England for Frieda's parents' home in Metz, a garrison town (then in Germany) near the disputed border with France. Lawrence experienced his first encounter with tensions between Germany and France when he was arrested and accused of being a British spy, before being released following an intervention from Frieda's father. After this incident, Lawrence left for a small hamlet to the south of Munich where he was joined by Frieda for their "honeymoon", later memorialised in the series of love poems titled Look! We Have Come Through (1917). During 1912 Lawrence wrote the first of his so-called "mining plays", The Daughter-in-Law, written in Nottingham dialect. The play was never to be performed, or even published, in Lawrence's lifetime.

Photograph of Lawrence by Lady Ottoline Morrell, 29 November 1915

From Germany, they walked southwards across the Alps to Italy, a journey that was recorded in the first of his travel books, a collection of linked essays titled Twilight in Italy and the unfinished novel, Mr Noon. During his stay in Italy, Lawrence completed the final version of Sons and Lovers. Having become so tired of the manuscript, he allowed Edward Garnett to cut roughly 100 pages from the text. The novel was published in 1913 and hailed as a vivid portrait of the realities of working class provincial life.

Lawrence and Frieda returned to Britain in 1913 for a short visit, during which they encountered and befriended critic John Middleton Murry and New Zealand-born short story writer Katherine Mansfield.

Also during that year, on 28 July, Lawrence met Welsh tramp poet W. H. Davies whose nature poetry he greatly admired. Davies collected autographs, and had been particularly keen to obtain Lawrence's signature. Georgian poetry publisher Edward Marsh secured an autograph, probably as part of a signed poem, for Davies, and hosted a meeting in London at which the poet met with Lawrence and his wife. Lawrence was immediately captivated by Davies and later invited him to visit them in Germany. However, despite this early enthusiasm for Davies' work, Lawrence's opinion changed after reading Foliage; whilst in Italy, he also disparaged Nature Poems, calling them "so thin, one can hardly feel them".^[11]

After the couple returned to Italy, staying in a cottage in Fiascherino on the Gulf of Spezia Lawrence wrote the first draft of what would later be transformed into two of his best-known novels, The Rainbow and Women in Love, in which unconventional female characters take centre stage. Both novels were highly controversial and were banned on publication in the UK for obscenity, although Women in Love was banned only temporarily.

The Rainbow follows three generations of a Nottinghamshire farming family from the pre-industrial to the industrial age, focusing particularly on a daughter, Ursula, and her aspiration for a more fulfilling life than that of becoming a housebound wife.^[12] Women in Love delves into the complex relationships between four major characters, including the sisters Ursula and Gudrun. Both novels explored grand themes and ideas that challenged conventional thought on the arts, politics, economic growth, gender, sexual experience, friendship and marriage. Lawrence's views as expressed in the novels are now thought to be far ahead of his time. The frank and relatively straightforward manner in which he wrote about sexual attraction was ostensibly why the books were initially banned, in particular the mention of same-sex attraction; Ursula has an affair with a woman in The Rainbow, and there is an undercurrent of attraction between the two principal male characters in Women in Love.

While working on Women in Love in Cornwall during 1916–17, Lawrence developed a strong relationship with a Cornish farmer named William Henry Hocking, which some scholars believe was possibly romantic, especially considering Lawrence's fascination with the theme of homosexuality in Women in Love.^[13] Although Lawrence never made it clear their relationship was sexual, Frieda believed it was.^[14] In a letter written during 1913, he writes, "I should like to know why nearly every man that approaches greatness tends to homosexuality, whether he admits it or not ..."^[15] He is also quoted as saying, "I believe the nearest I've come to perfect love was with a young coal-miner when I was about 16."^[16] However, given his enduring and robust relationship with Frieda it is likely that he was primarily "bi-curious", and whether he actually ever had homosexual relations remains an open question.^[17]

Eventually, Frieda obtained her divorce from Ernest Weekley. Lawrence and Frieda returned to Britain shortly before the outbreak of World War I and were legally married on 13 July 1914. During this time, Lawrence worked with London intellectuals and writers such as Dora Marsden, T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, and others who worked with The Egoist, an important Modernist literary magazine that published some of his work. Lawrence also worked on adapting Filippo Tommaso Marinetti's Manifesto of Futurism into English.^[18] He also met the young Jewish artist Mark Gertler, with whom he became good friends for a time; Lawrence would later express his admiration for Gertler's 1916 anti-war painting, Merry-Go-Round as "the best modern picture I have seen. . . it is great and true."^[19] Gertler would inspire the character Loerke (a sculptor) in Women in Love.

Frieda's German parentage and Lawrence's open contempt for militarism caused them to be viewed with suspicion and live in near-destitution during wartime Britain; this may have contributed to The Rainbow being suppressed and investigated for its alleged obscenity in 1915.^[20] Later, the couple were accused of spying and signaling to German submarines off the coast of Cornwall, where they lived at Zennor. During this period, Lawrence finished his final draft of Women in Love. Not published until 1920,^[21] it is now widely recognized as a novel of great dramatic force and intellectual subtlety.

In late 1917, after constant harassment by the armed forces and other authorities, Lawrence was forced to leave Cornwall at three days’ notice under the terms of the Defence of the Realm Act. This persecution was later described in an autobiographical chapter of his novel Kangaroo (1923). Lawrence spent a few months of early 1918 in the small, rural village of Hermitage near Newbury, Berkshire. Subsequently, he lived for just under a year (mid-1918 to early 1919) at Mountain Cottage, Middleton-by-Wirksworth, Derbyshire, where he wrote one of his most poetic short stories, “Wintry Peacock”. Until 1919, poverty compelled him to shift from address to address.

During this period, he barely survived a severe attack of influenza.^[21]

Exile[edit]

After the wartime years, Lawrence began what he termed his "savage pilgrimage", a time of voluntary exile from his native country. He escaped from Britain at the earliest practical opportunity and returned only twice for brief visits, spending the remainder of his life travelling with Frieda. This wanderlust took him to Australia, Italy, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the United States, Mexico and the South of France. Abandoning Britain in November 1919, they headed south, first to the Abruzzo region in central Italy and then onwards to Capri and the Fontana Vecchia in Taormina, Sicily. From Sicily they made brief excursions to Sardinia, Monte Cassino, Malta, Northern Italy, Austria and Southern Germany.

Many of these places appear in Lawrence's writings, including The Lost Girl (for which he won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction), Aaron's Rod and the fragment titled Mr Noon (the first part of which was published in the Phoenix anthology of his works, and the entirety in 1984). He wrote novellas such as The Captain's Doll, The Fox and The Ladybird. In addition, some of his short stories were issued in the collection England, My England and Other Stories. During these years Lawrence also wrote poems about the natural world in Birds, Beasts and Flowers.

Lawrence is often considered one of the finest travel writers in English. Sea and Sardinia describes a brief journey undertaken in January 1921, and focuses on the life of Sardinia’s people.^[22] Less well-known is his introduction to Maurice Magnus's, Memoirs of the Foreign Legion, in which Lawrence recalls his visit to the monastery of Monte Cassino.

His other nonfiction books include two responses to Freudian psychoanalysis, Psychoanalysis and the Unconscious and Fantasia of the Unconscious; Movements in European History, a school textbook published under a pseudonym, is a reflection of Lawrence’s blighted reputation in Britain.