Heterodox
economics
Heterodoxy is a term that may be used in
contrast with orthodoxy in schools of
economic thought or methodologies, that
Heterodox economics family tree.
may be beyond neoclassical
economics.
[1][2]
Heterodoxy is an
umbrella term that can cover various
schools of thought or theories. These
might for example include institutional,
evolutionary, Georgist, Austrian,
feminist,
[3]
social, post-Keynesian (not to
be confused with New Keynesian),
[2]
ecological, Marxian, socialist and
anarchist economics, among others.
[4]
Economics may be called orthodox or
conventional economics by its critics.
[5]
Alternatively, mainstream economics
deals with the "rationality–individualism–
equilibrium nexus" and heterodox
economics is more "radical" in dealing
with the "institutions–history–social
structure nexus".
[6]
Many economists
dismiss heterodox economics as "fringe"
and "irrelevant",
[7]
with little or no
influence on the vast majority of
academic mainstream economists in the
English-speaking world.
A recent review documented several
prominent groups of heterodox
economists since at least the 1990s as
working together with a resulting increase
in coherence across different
constituents.
[2]
Along these lines, the
International Confederation of
Associations for Pluralism in Economics
(ICAPE) does not define "heterodox
economics" and has avoided defining its
scope. ICAPE defines its mission as
"promoting pluralism in economics."
In defining a common ground in the
"critical commentary," one writer
described fellow heterodox economists
as trying to do three things: (1) identify
shared ideas that generate a pattern of
heterodox critique across topics and
chapters of introductory macro texts; (2)
give special attention to ideas that link
methodological differences to policy
differences; and (3) characterize the
common ground in ways that permit
distinct paradigms to develop common
differences with textbook economics in
different ways.
[8]
One study suggests four key factors as
important to the study of economics by
self-identified heterodox economists:
history, natural systems, uncertainty, and
power.
[9]
A number of heterodox schools of
economic thought challenged the
dominance of neoclassical economics
after the neoclassical revolution of the
1870s. In addition to socialist critics of
capitalism, heterodox schools in this
period included advocates of various
History
forms of mercantilism, such as the
American School dissenters from
neoclassical methodology such as the
historical school, and advocates of
unorthodox monetary theories such as
Social credit. Other heterodox schools
active before and during the Great
Depression included Technocracy and
Georgism.
Physical scientists and biologists were
the first individuals to use energy flows
to explain social and economic
development. Joseph Henry, an American
physicist and first secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution, remarked that
the "fundamental principle of political
economy is that the physical labor of
man can only be ameliorated by… the
transformation of matter from a crude
state to a artificial condition...by
expending what is called power or
energy."
[10][11]
The rise, and absorption into the
mainstream of Keynesian economics,
which appeared to provide a more
coherent policy response to
unemployment than unorthodox
monetary or trade policies contributed to
the decline of interest in these schools.
After 1945, the neoclassical synthesis of
Keynesian and neoclassical economics
resulted in a clearly defined mainstream
position based on a division of the field
into microeconomics (generally
neoclassical but with a newly developed
theory of market failure) and
macroeconomics (divided between
Keynesian and monetarist views on such
issues as the role of monetary policy).
Austrians and post-Keynesians who
dissented from this synthesis emerged
as clearly defined heterodox schools. In
addition, the Marxist and institutionalist
schools remained active.
Up to 1980 the most notable themes of
heterodox economics in its various forms
included:
1. rejection of the atomistic individual
conception in favor of a socially
embedded individual conception;
2. emphasis on time as an irreversible
historical process;
3. reasoning in terms of mutual
influences between individuals and
social structures.
From approximately 1980 mainstream
economics has been significantly
influenced by a number of new research
programs, including behavioral
economics, complexity economics,
evolutionary economics, experimental
economics, and neuroeconomics. As a
consequence, some heterodox
economists, such as John B. Davis,
proposed that the definition of heterodox
economics has to be adapted to this
new, more complex reality:
[12]
...heterodox economics post-1980 is
a complex structure, being
composed out of two broadly
different kinds of heterodox work,
each internally differentiated with a
number of research programs having
different historical origins and
orientations: the traditional left
heterodoxy familiar to most and the
'new heterodoxy' resulting from other
science imports.
[12]
Rejection of neoclassical
There is no single "heterodox economic
theory"; there are many different
"heterodox theories" in existence. What
they all share, however, is a rejection of
the neoclassical orthodoxy as
representing the appropriate tool for
understanding the workings of economic
and social life.
[13]
The reasons for this
rejection may vary. Some of the elements
commonly found in heterodox critiques
are listed below.
Criticism of the neoclassical
model of individual behavior
economics
One of the most broadly accepted
principles of neoclassical economics is
the assumption of the "rationality of
economic agents". Indeed, for a number
of economists, the notion of rational
maximizing behavior is taken to be
synonymous with economic behavior
(Becker 1976, Hirshleifer 1984). When
some economists' studies do not
embrace the rationality assumption, they
are seen as placing the analyses outside
the boundaries of the Neoclassical
economics discipline (Landsberg 1989,
596). Neoclassical economics begins
with the a priori assumptions that agents
are rational and that they seek to
maximize their individual utility (or
profits) subject to environmental
constraints. These assumptions provide
the backbone for rational choice theory.
Many heterodox schools are critical of
the homo economicus model of human
behavior used in standard neoclassical
model. A typical version of the critique is
that of Satya Gabriel:
[14]
Neoclassical economic theory
is grounded in a particular
conception of human
psychology, agency or decision-
making. It is assumed that all
human beings make economic
decisions so as to maximize
pleasure or utility. Some
heterodox theories reject this
basic assumption of
neoclassical theory, arguing
for alternative understandings
of how economic decisions are
made and/or how human
psychology works. It is possible
to accept the notion that
humans are pleasure seeking
machines, yet reject the idea
that economic decisions are
governed by such pleasure
seeking. Human beings may,
for example, be unable to make
choices consistent with
pleasure maximization due to
social constraints and/or
coercion. Humans may also be
unable to correctly assess the
choice points that are most
likely to lead to maximum
pleasure, even if they are
unconstrained (except in
budgetary terms) in making
such choices. And it is also
possible that the notion of
pleasure seeking is itself a
meaningless assumption
Shiozawa emphasizes that economic
agents act in a complex world and
therefore impossible for them to attain
maximal utility point. They instead
behave as if there are a repertories of
many ready made rules, one of which
they chose according to relevant
situation.
[15]
because it is either impossible
to test or too general to refute.
Economic theories that reject
the basic assumption of
economic decisions as the
outcome of pleasure
maximization are heterodox.
Criticism of the neoclassical
model of market equilibrium
In microeconomic theory, cost-
minimization by consumers and by firms
implies the existence of supply and
demand correspondences for which
market clearing equilibrium prices exist, if
there are large numbers of consumers
and producers. Under convexity
assumptions or under some marginal-
cost pricing rules, each equilibrium will be
Pareto efficient: In large economies, non-
convexity also leads to quasi-equilibria
that are nearly efficient.
However, the concept of market
equilibrium has been criticized by
Austrians, post-Keynesians and others,
who object to applications of
microeconomic theory to real-world
markets, when such markets are not
usefully approximated by microeconomic
models. Heterodox economists assert
that micro-economic models rarely
capture reality.
Mainstream microeconomics may be
defined in terms of optimization and
equilibrium, following the approaches of
Paul Samuelson and Hal Varian. On the
other hand, heterodox economics may be
labeled as falling into the nexus of
institutions, history, and social
structure.
[4][16]
Over the past two decades, the
intellectual agendas of heterodox
economists have taken a decidedly
pluralist turn. Leading heterodox thinkers
have moved beyond the established
paradigms of Austrian, Feminist,
Institutional-Evolutionary, Marxian, Post
Keynesian, Radical, Social, and Sraffian
economics—opening up new lines of
analysis, criticism, and dialogue among
dissenting schools of thought. This
cross-fertilization of ideas is creating a
Most recent developments
new generation of scholarship in which
novel combinations of heterodox ideas
are being brought to bear on important
contemporary and historical problems,
such as socially grounded
reconstructions of the individual in
economic theory; the goals and tools of
economic measurement and
professional ethics; the complexities of
policymaking in today's global political
economy; and innovative connections
among formerly separate theoretical
traditions (Marxian, Austrian, feminist,
ecological, Sraffian, institutionalist, and
post-Keynesian) (for a review of post-
Keynesian economics, see Lavoie (1992);
Rochon (1999)).
David Colander, an advocate of
complexity economics, argues that the
ideas of heterodox economists are now
being discussed in the mainstream
without mention of the heterodox
economists, because the tools to analyze
institutions, uncertainty, and other factors
have now been developed by the
mainstream. He suggests that heterodox
economists should embrace rigorous
mathematics and attempt to work from
within the mainstream, rather than
treating it as an enemy.
[17]
Some schools of heterodox economic
thought have also taken a
transdisciplinary approach.
Thermoeconomics is based on the claim
that human economic processes are
governed by the second law of
thermodynamics. The posited
relationship between economic theory,
energy and entropy, has been extended
further by systems scientists to explain
the role of energy in biological evolution
in terms of such economic criteria as
productivity, efficiency, and especially the
costs and benefits of the various
mechanisms for capturing and utilizing
available energy to build biomass and do
work.
[18][19]
Various student movements have
emerged in response to the exclusion of
heterodox economics in the curricula of
most economics degrees. The
International Student Initiative for
Pluralist Economics was set up as an
umbrella network for various smaller
university groups such as Rethinking
Economics to promote pluralism in
economics, including more heterodox
approaches.
American Institutionalist School
Austrian economics #
[20]
Binary economics
Bioeconomics
Fields of heterodox
economic thought
Complexity economics
Distributivism
Ecological economics §
Evolutionary economics # § (partly
within mainstream economics)
Feminist economics # §
Freiwirtschaft
Georgism
Gift-based economics
Green Economics
Humanistic economics
Innovation Economics
Institutional economics # §
Islamic economics
Marxian economics #
Mutualism
Neuroeconomics
Participatory economics
Political Economy
Post-Keynesian economics § including
Modern Monetary Theory and
Circuitism
Post scarcity
Pluralism in economics
Resource-based economics – not to
be confused with a resource-based
economy
Real-world economics
Sharing economics
Socialist economics #
# Listed in Journal of Economic
Literature codes scrolled to at JEL: B5 –
Current Heterodox Approaches.
§ Listed in The New Palgrave Dictionary
of Economics
[21]
Some schools in the social sciences aim
to promote certain perspectives:
classical and modern political economy;
Social economics (partially heterodox
usage)
Sraffian economics #
Technocracy (Energy Accounting)
Thermoeconomics
Mouvement Anti-Utilitariste dans les
Sciences Sociales
economic sociology and anthropology;
gender and racial issues in economics;
and so on.
Notable heterodox economists
Michael Albert
Jack Amariglio
Rania Antonopoulos
Ha-Joon Chang
Paul Cockshott
Herman Daly
Alfred Eichner
Mason Gaffney
Henry George
Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen
Robin Hahnel
Michael Hudson
Michał Kalecki
Mushtaq Khan
John Komlos
Lyndon Larouche
Tony Lawson
Frederic S. Lee
Bernard Lonergan
Karl Marx
Hyman Minsky
Bill Mitchell
Peter Navarro
Michael Perelman
Carlota Perez
Stephen Resnick
Jeremy Rifkin
Joan Robinson
Dani Rodrik
Murray Rothbard
E. F. Schumacher
Joseph Schumpeter
Piero Sraffa
Frank Stilwell
Nicolaus Tideman
Yanis Varoufakis
Thorstein Veblen
Richard D. Wolff
Simon Zadek
Association for Evolutionary
Economics
EAEPE
Humanistic economics
Kinetic exchange models of markets
Pluralism in economics
Post-autistic economics
Real-world economics
Real-world economics review
Degrowth
1. Fred E. Foldvary, ed., 1996. Beyond
See also
References
Neoclassical Economics: Heterodox
Approaches to Economic Theory,
Edward Elgar. Description and
contents B&N.com links .
2. Frederic S. Lee, 2008. "heterodox
economics," The New Palgrave
Dictionary of Economics, 2nd
Edition, v. 4, pp. 2–65. Abstract.
3. In the order listed at JEL
classification codes § B. History of
Economic Thought, Methodology,
and Heterodox Approaches, JEL: B5
– Current Heterodox Approaches.
4. Lawson, T. (2005). "The nature of
heterodox economics"
(PDF)
.
Cambridge Journal of Economics. 30
(4): 483–505.
doi:10.1093/cje/bei093 .
5. C. Barry, 1998. Political-economy: A
comparative approach. Westport,
CT: Praeger.
6. John B. Davis (2006). "Heterodox
Economics, the Fragmentation of the
Mainstream, and Embedded
Individual Analysis", in Future
Directions in Heterodox Economics,
p. 57 . Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press.
7. Among these economists, Robert M.
Solow names Austrian, Post-
Keynesian, Marxist, and neo-
Ricardian schools as on "dissenting
fringes of academic economics".
Solow continued that "In economics,
nevertheless, there is usually a
definite consensus—there is one
now." Further:
Marx was an important
and influential thinker,
and Marxism has been a
doctrine with intellectual
and practical influence.
The fact is, however, that
most serious English-
(Solow 1988) George Stigler
similarly noted the professional
marginality of the "neo-Ricardian"
economists (who follow Piero
Sraffa):
"economists working in the Marxian-
Sraffian tradition represent a small
minority of modern economists, and
... their writings have virtually no
impact upon the professional work
of most economists in major
speaking economists
regard Marxist economics
as an irrelevant dead end.
English-language universities."
(Stigler 1988, p. 1733)
8. Cohn, Steve (2003). "Common
Ground Critiques of Neoclassical
Principles Texts" . Post-Autistic
Economics Review (18, article 3).
9. Mearman, Andrew (2011). "Who Do
Heterodox Economists Think They
Are?" American Journal of
Economics and Sociology, 70(2):
480–510 .
10. Cutler J. Cleveland, "Biophysical
economics" , Encyclopedia of Earth,
Last updated: September 14, 2006.
11. Eric Zencey, 2009. "Mr. Soddy’s
Ecological Economy",] The New York
Times, April 12, p. WK 9.
12. Davis, John B. (2006). "The Nature of
Heterodox Economics"
(PDF)
. Post-
Autistic Economics Review (40): 23–
30.
13. Lee, Frederic (September 16, 2011).
A History of Heterodox Economics:
Challenging Mainstream Views in
the 21st Century (Reprint ed.).
Routledge. pp. 7–9. ISBN 978-
0415681971.
14. Satya J. Gabriel 2003. "Introduction
to Heterodox Economic Theory."
(blog), June 4, [1] Satya J. Gabriel is
a Professor of Economics at Mount
Holyoke College
15. Shiozawa, Y. 2004 Evolutinary
Economics in the 21st Century: A
Manifest, Evolutionary and
Institutional Economics Review, 1(1):
5–47.
16. Dow, S. C. (2000). "Prospects for the
Progress in Heterodox Economics"
(PDF)
. Journal of the History of
Economic Thought. 22 (2): 157–70.
doi:10.1080/10427710050025367 .
hdl:1893/24906 .
17. David Colander, 2007. Pluralism and
Heterodox Economics: Suggestions
for an “Inside the Mainstream”
Heterodoxy
18. Corning, Peter A.; Kline, Stephen J.
(1998). "Thermodynamics,
information and life revisited, Part II:
'Thermoeconomics' and 'Control
information' ". Systems Research
and Behavioral Science. 15 (6): 453–
82. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-
1743(199811/12)15:6<453::AID-
SRES201>3.0.CO;2-U .
19. Peter A. Corning. 2002.
“Thermoeconomics – Beyond the
Second Law Archived 2008-09-22
at the Wayback Machine” – source:
www.complexsystems.org
20. 2003. A Companion to the History of
Economic Thought. Blackwell
Publishing. ISBN 0-631-22573-0 p.
452
Articles
Bauer, Leonhard and Matis, Herbert
1988. "From moral to political
economy: The Genesis of social
21. 2nd Edition, v. 8, Appendix IV, p. 856,
searchable by clicking (the JEL
classification codes JEL:) radio
button B5, B52, or B59, then the
Search button (or Update Search
Results button) at
http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.c
om/search_results?
edition=all&field=content&q=&topici
d=B5 .
Further reading
sciences" History of European Ideas,
9(2): 125–43.
Dequech, David 2007. "Neoclassical,
mainstream, orthodox, and heterodox
economics," Journal of Post Keynesian
Economics, 30(2): 279–302.
Flaherty, Diane, 1987. "radical political
economy," The New Palgrave: A
Dictionary of Economics, v, 4. pp. 36–
39.
_____, 2008. "radical economics," The
New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics,
2nd Edition.Abstract.
Lee, Frederic. S. 2008. "heterodox
economics", The New Palgrave
Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition.
Abstract.
Books
Jo, Tae-Hee, Chester, Lynne, and
D'Ippoliti. eds. 2017. The Routledge
Handbook of Heterodox Economics .
London and New York: Routledge.
ISBN 978-1138899940.
Gerber, Julien-Francois and
Steppacher, Rolf, ed., 2012. Towards
an Integrated Paradigm in Heterodox
Economics: Alternative Approaches to
the Current Eco-Social Crises .
Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-
0230303584
Lee, Frederic S. 2009. A History of
Heterodox Economics Challenging the
Mainstream in the Twentieth Century .
London and New York: Routledge.
2009 ISBN 978-0415777148
Harvey, John T. and Garnett, Jr., Robert
F., ed., 2007. Future Directions for
Heterodox Economics, Series Advances
in Heterodox Economics, The
University of Michigan Press.
ISBN 978-0472032471
What Every Economics Student Needs
to Know. . Routledge 2014.
ISBN 9780765639233
McDermott, John, 2003. Economics in
Real Time: A Theoretical
Reconstruction, Series Advances in
Heterodox Economics, The University
of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-
0472113576
Rochon, Louis-Philippe and Rossi,
Sergio, editors, 2003. Modern Theories
of Money: The Nature and Role of
Money in Capitalist Economies. Edward
Elgar Publishing. ISBN 1840647892
Solow, Robert M. (20 March 1988).
"The Wide, Wide World Of Wealth (The
New Palgrave: A Dictionary of
Economics'. Edited by John Eatwell,
Murray Milgate and Peter Newman.
Four volumes. 4,103 pp. New York:
Stockton Press.)" . New York Times.
Stigler, George J. (December 1988).
"Palgrave's Dictionary of Economics".
Journal of Economic Literature. 26 (4):
1729–36. JSTOR 2726859 .
Stilwell, Frank., 2011. Political
Economy: The Contest of Economic
Ideas. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0195514582
Articles, conferences, papers
Lavoie, Marc, 2006. Do Heterodox
Theories Have Anything in Common? A
Post-Keynesian Point of View.
Lawson, Tony, 2006. "The Nature of
Heterodox Economics," Cambridge
Journal of Economics, 30(4), pp. 483–
505. Pre-publication copy.
Journals
Evolutionary and Institutional
Economics Review (Freely
downloadable)
Journal of Institutional Economics
Cambridge Journal of Economics
Real-world economics review
International Journal of Pluralism and
Economics Education
Association for Heterodox Economics
Heterodox Economics Newsletter
Heterodox Economics Directory
(Graduate and Undergraduate
Programs, Journals, Publishers and
External links
Book Series, Associations, Blogs, and
Institutions and Other Web Sites)
Association for Evolutionary
Economics (AFEE)
International Confederation of
Associations for Pluralism in
Economics (ICAPE)
Union for Radical Political Economics
(URPE)
Association for Social Economics
(ASE)
Post-Keynesian Economics Study
Group (PKSG)
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otherwise noted.
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