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12.4
Space Segment Economics
The economics of implementing and operating the space segment of a satellite
system are dominated by the initial cost of manufacturing the spacecraft, providing
the launch into orbit, and insuring the combined value against failure. To that is
added a much smaller, but significant, amount to implement the required TT&C
ground facilities. Figure 12.3 reviews the main elements of a space segment, includ-
12.4
Space Segment Economics
399
Figure 12.3
Major elements of the investment and operations expense of the space segment of
a commercial satellite system.
ing initial investment as well as operating costs. A spacecraft manufacturer typically
enters into a fixed-price contract to design, manufacture, and deliver the required
quantity of communications satellites. A separate contract usually is required with
the launch agency, which in turn pays for the LV hardware and then provides the
integration and launch direction services at the launch site. Some customers have
included the LV services along with the spacecraft in what is called a delivery-in-
orbit contract.
Following injection into the desired orbit, either the satellite operator or the
spacecraft manufacturer takes over tracking and control of the satellite, performing
the services indicated by the circle in Figure 12.3. Non-GEO spacecraft may be
designed to configure themselves when released from the LV, thus reducing the
demand for ground-based tracking. LV and tracking services normally are consid-
ered part of the investment cost of the system. Prior to the start of revenue-producing
service, a GEO satellite is drifted into its final position, configured for operation
and tested to ensure that the launch environment has not damaged any subsystems.
An ever increasing element of space segment cost is the launch insurance, which
provides coverage for a possible launch or injection failure. Premiums for such
insurance have become extremely costly, running 12–20% of the cost of the space-
craft, LV, and insurance. That is roughly equivalent to holding a financial reserve
based on one failure in five to one in eight attempts, which is conservative in
comparison to long-term experience. However, insurance has become nearly essen-
400
Satellite Systems Engineering and Economics
tial because of financial commitments to other parties, including public and private
stockholders.
The TT&C ground facilities (shown at the left of Figure 12.3) are part of the
space segment investment, to be continuously maintained during the life of the
satellites. Due to the close tie to the particular satellite design, it is a common practice
to procure most of the electronic equipment and software from the spacecraft
manufacturer. More recently, some specialist technology companies have developed
generic satellite control equipment and software to provide an element of competi-
tion into what has been a very closed market. In either case, the manufacturer
must demonstrate prior to launch that all the ground and space components will
work together properly.
The annual costs associated with operating the space segment, indicated in the
diamond-shaped element in Figure 12.3, include expenses for the personnel who
perform the technical and administrative functions at the satellite control center
and the TT&C station. The cost of training the technical staff is high, and many
personnel are required to be available around the clock. Fortunately, only a limited
number of facilities are needed to operate a space segment consisting of several
communications satellites. A global constellation also can be managed with limited
TT&C ground assets, since a reliable intercommunication network allows central-
ization of technical and management functions.
The expenses of maintaining the ground facilities are usually fairly small due
to their compact nature. The people who perform that task (introduced in Chapter
11) tend to be quite resourceful and versatile, which is probably the result of having
to perform a wide variety of tasks on critically operating equipment. Nevertheless,
an ongoing relationship with the spacecraft and ground equipment suppliers is
essential to be able to maintain and expand the system over time. Perhaps the most
difficult task in a commercial environment is the marketing of the services on the
system. That can involve a large staff of sales engineers and service representatives,
organized in teams to cover different user groups, applications, regions, and facili-
ties.
Another annual expense is that of on-orbit insurance. This type of coverage,
introduced in the late 1970s, allowed satellite operators to address part of the risk of
loss of a working satellite. Later, purchasers of transponders needed this insurance
coverage because it was demanded by the banks that provided the funds necessary
to purchase the transponders in the first place. It could be argued that on-orbit
insurance (also called life insurance) provides little benefit because there have been
relatively few significant commercial satellite losses once successful placement into
service has been achieved. On the other hand, the financial loss is great in the event
of a total failure of a satellite, which could justify the coverage. On-orbit insurance
works like depreciation, paying an amount that approximately equals the remaining
value of the satellite. A failure that occurs in the first year (but after the launch
insurance coverage has run out) would result in payment of nearly the full replace-
ment cost of the satellite (less inflation, unless that had been considered). The
payment for failure at the end of life is, by definition, zero. The insured value in
the intervening years is found on the line connecting those end points. The policy
may also cover a partial failure if the satellite were to lose, say, 50% of its capability.
12.4
Space Segment Economics
401
The relative magnitude of each major cost element for a two-satellite system
is shown in the pie chart in Figure 12.4. Annual costs have been considered by
taking the simple sum of such costs over an eight-year period, which is one-half
the actual life of an assumed space segment. That takes account of the time value
of money (money spent several years in the future is worth less than money spent
in the current year). The most costly single element is for spacecraft, representing
approximately one-third the total. The sum of the cost of launch and launch
insurance is comparable. Investment in ground facilities for the TT&C station and
SCC is relatively small (2%). Operating expense over the 8-year period takes
another relatively large chunk, approximately one-third the total expense.
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