Figure 1.21
Atmospheric attenuation effects for space-to-Earth paths as a function of frequency
(clear air conditions); A
atm
applies for an Earth station located on the equator at the
same longitude as the GEO satellite.
24
Fundamentals of Satellite Systems
tion since this is how most forms of data are transmitted (an exception being some
legacy frequency modulated cable TV channels). Once the carrier is modulated, it
develops sidebands that contain a representation of the original information. The
modulated carrier therefore occupies an amount of RF bandwidth within the fre-
quency band of interest. For a given modulation method, the bandwidth is propor-
tional to the information bit rate. If two carriers are either on the same frequency
or have overlapping bandwidths, then radio frequency interference (RFI) may
occur. To the user, RFI can look or sound like background noise (which is neither
intelligible nor particularly distressful), or it can produce an annoying effect like
herringbone patterns on a TV monitor or a buzzing sound or tone in the audio.
In digital modulation, interference and noise introduce bit errors that either degrade
quality or produce information dropouts. When the interfering carrier is compara-
ble in power level to the desired (wanted) carrier, the interference effect is classed
as harmful, a condition similar to the radio jamming encountered in the shortwave
broadcast band.
1.4.1
ITU Spectrum Allocations and Regions
Frequency bands are allocated for various purposes by the International Telecom-
munication Union (ITU), a specialized agency of the United Nations that has its
headquarters in Geneva. Members of the ITU include essentially every government
on the planet, which in turn are responsible for assigning radio frequencies in
allocated bands to domestic users. Because the RF spectrum is a limited resource,
the ITU has allocated the same parts of the spectrum to many countries and for
many purposes around the globe. The consequence is that users of radio communi-
cations must allow for specified amounts of RFI and must be prepared to deal
with harmful interference if and when it occurs. When there are disputes between
countries over RFI or frequency assignments, the ITU often plays the role of
mediator or judge. It cannot, under present treaties, directly enforce its own rules.
The rules and the frequency allocations are subject to review and modification at
the biannual World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC), conducted by the
ITU and all its members. The spelling of the word
radiocommunication
was con-
trived by the ITU itself to reflect the vital connection between the
radio
spectrum
(a limited resource that the members must learn to share) and
communication
(perhaps the most valuable application of that spectrum).
The spectrum of RF frequencies is depicted in Figure 1.22, which indicates on
a logarithmic scale the abbreviations that are in common usage. The bottom end
of the spectrum from 0.1 to 100 MHz has been applied to the various radio
broadcasting services and is not used for space communication. In fact, the electri-
cally charged layer of the atmosphere referred to as the ionosphere is opaque at
these frequencies. The frequency bands of interest for satellites lie above 100 MHz,
where we find the VHF, UHF, and super high frequency (SHF) bands. The SHF
range has been broken down further by common usage into subbands with letter
designations, the familiar L-, S-, C-, X-, Ku-, and Ka-bands being included. Gener-
ally, Ku-band and those below it are the most popular because of the relative low
cost of available equipment and the more favorable propagation characteristics.
The Ka-, V-, and Q-bands employ millimeter wavelengths and are potentially useful
1.4
Frequency Spectrum Allocations
25
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