Introducing English Linguistics

participles:
English has two participles: an -ing participle, added to a lexical verb and
combined with a form of the auxiliary verb be (e.g. is walking), and an -ed
participle, used with a form of the auxiliary verb have (e.g. has walked). See
also aspect.
passive voice:
The form of a verb in a clause such as The survey was conducted by a research assis-
tant in which the doer of the action, the agent (a research assistant), is object of
the preposition by, the person or thing affected by the agent (The survey) is the
subject, and the verb has a specific form: be
 -ed participle (was conducted).
perfective aspect:
An aspect formed in English by combining a form of the auxiliary have
with the -ed participle: have walked, has taken.
performance:
How speakers actually put language to use. For Chomsky, performance
includes hesitations, stammers, repetitions, and mistakes. See also com-