particularly to the doctrine that no state can exercise jurisdiction over
another state.
261
As such it is based upon the principles of the sovereignty
and equality of states.
262
Non-justiciability acts as an evidential bar, since
an issue cannot be raised or proved, in contrast to sovereign immunity,
which provides that the courts cannot exercise the jurisdiction that exists
with regard to the matter in question due to the status of the entity or
individual concerned, although it is open to the state concerned to waive
its immunity and thus remove the jurisdictional bar.
263
Non-justiciability
will usually concern a clear inter-state relationship or situation which is
impleaded in a seemingly private action, while immunity issues will in-
variably arise out of a state–private party relationship not usually relating
to inter-state activities as such.
264
The concept of non-justiciability rests upon a number of pillars, rang-
ing from prerogative of the executive in the areas of foreign policy and
national defence,
265
where it is essentially a rule of law principle in a demo-
cratic system of government delineating the separation of powers,
266
to
respect for the sovereignty and independence of foreign states.
267
Accord-
ingly, both domestic and foreign executive acts are covered. With regard
260
See e.g. Wade and Phillips,
Constitutional and Administrative Law
, pp. 299–303; J. B.
Moore,
Acts of State in English Law
, New York, 1906; Mann,
Foreign Affairs
, chapter
9; Singer, ‘The Act of State Doctrine of the UK’, 75 AJIL, 1981, p. 283; M. Akehurst,
‘Jurisdiction in International Law’, 46 BYIL, 1972–3, pp. 145, 240, and M. Zander, ‘The
Act of State Doctrine’, 53 AJIL, 1959, p. 826.
261
See Lord Pearson,
Nissan
v.
Attorney-General
[1970] AC 179, 239; 44 ILR, pp. 359, 390.
262
See
Oppenheim’s International Law
, p. 365.
263
See further as to sovereign or state immunity and diplomatic immunity, below,
chapter 13.
264
See e.g.
Amalgamated Metal Trading
v.
Department of Trade and Industry
,
The Times
, 21
March 1989, p. 40.
265
In the UK, areas traditionally covered by the Crown prerogative: see above, p. 149.
266
See e.g. Lord Hoffmann in
R
v.
Lyons
[2002] UKHL 44, para. 40; 131 ILR, p. 555; Lord
Millett in
R
v.
Lyons
, para. 105; 131 ILR, p. 575, and Richards J in the
CND
case [2002]
EWHC 2777 (Admin), para. 60.
267
See
Underhill
v.
Hernandez
168 US 250, 252.
i n t e r nat i o na l l aw a n d m u n i c i pa l l aw
181
to the former,
268
the courts will refuse, or at the least be extremely reluc-
tant, to adjudicate upon an exercise of sovereign power, such as making
war and peace, making international treaties or ceding territory.
269
This
would include the definition of territories within the UK
270
as well as the
conduct of foreign affairs.
271
Lord Hoffmann held in
R
v.
Jones
that ‘the
making of war and peace and the disposition of the armed forces has
always been regarded as a discretionary power of the Crown into the exer-
cise of which the courts will not enquire’.
272
As far as the latter instance is
268
See
Nissan
v.
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