Krstic
judgment (2 August 2001), para 549.
148
Jelisic
judgment (14 December 1999), para 82.
149
Akayesu
judgment (2 September 1998), para 523; reaffirmed in the
Rutaganda
judgment (6 December
1999), para 399.
150
Kayishema
judgment (21 May 1999), para 93; the
Karadzic
decision (11 July 1996), para 95, inferred the
accused’s genocidal intent from the combined effect of his speeches, the massive scale of crimes, all
of which were aimed at undermining the foundation of the group.
151
Krstic
judgment (2 August 2001), paras 582–84.
152 This view was adopted by two recent German judgments:
Jorgic
case, Dusseldorf Supreme Court, 3
StR 215/98 (30 April 1999), upheld by the FRG Federal Constitutional Court, and the
Djajic
case,
BavarianAppeals Court (23 May 1997), 92
AJIL
(1998), 528, cited with approval in the
Krstic
judgment,
ibid,
para 589.
Chapter 13: The International Criminal Tribunals for Yugoslavia and Rwanda 363
jurisprudence suggest that the intent to destroy a part of the group must affect a
considerable number of individuals that make up a substantial part of that group.
153
In such cases the prosecutor must prove both the intent to destroy the targeted group
in the particular geographical area, as well as the intent to destroy that group as such.
154
The enumerated criminal acts against members of a group on the basis of their
membership in the group as such are exhaustive, but their ambit had not prior to the
ICTR’s jurisprudence been tested in practice. ‘Killing members of the group’
155
includes only homicides committed with intent to cause death.
156
‘Causing serious
bodily or mental harm’
157
to members of the group does not require, contrary to
what the USA has been arguing since the adoption of the 1948 Genocide
Convention,
158
that the harm be permanent or irremediable.
159
This provision is not
limited to specific well known practices causing bodily or mental harm, such as
torture, but is open, as the Israeli Supreme Court pointed out in the
Eichmann
case,
to any acts designed to cause degradation, deprivation of humanity and cause
physical or mental suffering.
160
‘Deliberately inflicting on a group conditions of life
calculated to bring about its physical destruction’
161
has been described as a method
of slow death, of which rape can constitute a means of its accomplishment.
162
The
Akayesu
judgment stated that this category comprises the methods of destruction
that do not immediately intend to kill the members of the group, but they do so
ultimately. This includes,
inter alia,
subjecting a people to ‘a subsistent diet, systematic
expulsion, and the reduction of essential medical services below minimum
requirement’.
163
‘Imposing measures intended to prevent births within a group’
164
includes, but is not limited to, obvious practices such as sexual mutilation,
sterilisation, forced birth control, separation of sexes, or prohibition of marriages.
As was noted by the ICTR, in patriarchal societies, children follow the lineage of the
father. Thus, impregnation of a woman by a rapist belonging to another group with
the intention that the victim bear a child from his group would constitute genocide.
Likewise, the mental effect of rape by which a woman is so traumatised that she
refuses to procreate would also amount to genocide.
165
‘Forcibly transferring children
of the group to another group’
166
prohibits not only forceful physical transfer, but
153
Kayishema and Ruzindana
judgment (21 May 1999), para 97;
Prosecutor v Bagilishema,
Judgment (7 June
2001), Case No ICTR-95–1A-T, para 64;
Krstic
judgment,
ibid,
paras 586–88.
154
Sikirica
judgment (3 September 2001), para 61.
155 ICTR Statute, Art 2(2)(a).
156
Akayesu
judgment (2 September 1998), paras 500–01;
Prosecutor v Musema,
Judgment (
Musema
judgment) (27 January 2000), para 155.
157 ICTR Statute, Art 2(2)(b).
158
Op cit,
Verdirame, note 137, pp 580–81.
159
Akayesu
judgment (2 September 1998), paras 502–04.
160
Public Prosecutor v Eichmann,
Judgment (1962) 36 ILR 277, p 340. This passage from the court’s
judgment refers to the charge of ‘crimes against the Jewish people’, which is equivalent to that of
genocide. The judgment rendered by the District Court of Jerusalem was subsequently upheld by
the Israeli Supreme Court.
161 ICTR Statute, Art 2(2)(c).
162
Kayishema
judgment (21 May 1999), para 116.
163
Akayesu
judgment (2 September 1998), paras 505–06.
164 ICTR Statute, Art 2(2)(d).
165
Akayesu
judgment (2 September 1998), paras 507–08.
166 ICTR Statute, Art 2(2)(e).
International Criminal Law
364
also the causing of serious trauma to the parents or guardians that would necessarily
lead to such transfer.
167
The Rwandan genocide was conceived at the highest level by Hutu officials and
was executed by lower level individuals, including Hutu youth teams and private
individuals who had been incited through the mass media and public speeches. The
seminal role of the media as a means of instigating hatred and calling for
extermination of Tutsi by falsifying or exaggerating events was made clear in the
case of former Prime Minister Kambanda, but more so in the case of
Georges Ruggiu,
a Belgian national, who was responsible for broadcasting these messages on
Rwandan radio.
168
Public speeches given by influential individuals were found to
have had the same effect, as was evident in the case of Akayesu’s rallies with which
he intended to directly create a particular state of mind in his audience that would
lead to the destruction of the Tutsi. The ICTR defined incitement as ‘encouraging,
persuading or directly provoking another through speeches, shouts, threats or any
other means of audiovisual communication to commit an offence’.
169
Incitement to
commit genocide must further be committed in public and be direct on what its
author wants to achieve. However, the ‘directness’ element, as correctly propounded
by the ICTR, should be assessed in light of its cultural and linguistic content and the
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