MUTUAL LEGAL ASSISTANCE
9.1
INTRODUCTION
The international exchange of evidence in criminal matters through formal mutual
legal assistance arrangements is a fairly recent phenomenon.
1
Realising that
participation in formal arrangements would provide prosecuting authorities with
increased access to evidence located abroad, States have become increasingly willing
to negotiate mutual legal assistance treaties (MLAT).
2
Whilst most forms of assistance
can proceed on the basis of the principle of international comity, mutual assistance
increasingly takes place by way of bilateral or multilateral treaty. Many States have
demonstrated a preference to enter into bilateral agreements which allow for greater
specificity.
3
Generally, MLATs require contracting parties to undertake to provide
assistance in: taking written testimony; conducting searches for and seizing material
for use as evidence; serving summonses and tracing witnesses and suspects.
4
Conventionally, mutual assistance arrangements abide by the
locus regit actum
rule,
which permits the requested party to execute letters rogatory in accordance with its
national law and practice. While some MLATs encourage requesting States to indicate
their preferred method of conducting the inquiry,
5
in practice, they exert little control
over the manner in which requests are executed. To increase the effectiveness of
MLATs and to combat admissibility problems, assistance mechanisms are placing
increasing emphasis on compliance with the procedural requirements of the
requesting State.
6
Requests are subject to judicial authorisation in the requested State. In the UK,
the Home Office Mutual Legal Assistance Section checks all letters rogatory and
1
For a discussion of the development of mutual legal assistance in criminal matters, see A Ellis and R
Pisani, The United States Treaties on Mutual Assistance: A Comparative Analysis’,
The International
Lawyer
(1985), 189; W Gilmore (ed),
Mutual Assistance in Criminal and Business Regulatory Matters,
1995, Cambridge: CUP; A Jones,
Jones on Extradition and Mutual Legal Assistance,
2001, London: Sweet
& Maxwell; C Murray and L Harris,
Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters,
2002; E Nadelmann,
‘Negotiations in Criminal Law Assistance Treaties’, 33
AJCL
(1985), 467; E Nadelmann,
Cops Across
Borders: The Internationalisation of US Criminal Law Enforcement,
1993, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania
State UP.
2
The UK, eg, has ratified the 1959 European Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters
and its Protocol, ETS 30; the 1990 European Convention on Laundering, Search, Seizure and
Confiscation of the Proceeds of Crime, 30 ILM (1991), 148; the 1988 United Nations (UN) Convention
Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic and Psychotropic Substances, 28 ILM (1989), 493; and has adopted
the Commonwealth Scheme Relating to Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters.
3
The 1973 USA-Switzerland Treaty, 12 ILM (1973), 916, for example, addresses the specific problem
relating to the depositing of ‘dirty’ money into Swiss bank accounts.
4
See, eg, the 1990 UN Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance which was adopted by GA Res 45/117
(1990).
5
See, eg, 1973 USA-Switzerland Treaty.
6
See, eg, 1990 European Convention on Laundering, Search, Seizure and Confiscation of the Proceeds
of Crime.
International Criminal Law
232
submits them for endorsement to the relevant judicial authority.
7
This is to ensure
that the requests for assistance comply with both UK and international law. The
process of administrative and judicial supervision can be cumbersome and time
consuming. However, judicial input undoubtedly assists in maintaining a balance
between competing interests and safeguards against an abuse of the mutual legal
assistance process by governments.
8
While most MLATs do not contain specific
human rights provisions, many have traditionally provided reservations and
safeguards designed to protect the accused. These provisions are similar to those
found in extradition treaties. Thus, Art 1(2) of the 1959 European Convention on
Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, for example, provides that assistance may
be refused, if the offence is of a political nature, or if the execution of a request will
prejudice the sovereignty of the requested State. However, in contrast with extradition
treaties there is usually no specific double criminality requirement. Requests may
also be refused if evidence would need to be taken under compulsion or from a
witness who would be non-compellable in the requested State.
9
States may also refuse
requests if the evidence is protected by the rules of privilege. While some treaties
state that the requesting State shall not, without the consent of the requested State,
use information or evidence provided by the requested State for investigations other
than those stated in the request,
10
others allow evidence to be used in the prosecution
of non-treaty offences.
11
Despite moves to introduce measures designed to offer the
defence some procedural protection, criticism has been directed towards the lack of
corresponding mechanisms for the accused needing to seek assistance from foreign
authorities.
12
Concerns have also been raised regarding the potential for misusing
mutual assistance provisions to obtain evidence from abroad which would be
unobtainable under national law.
13
7
Under Art 53 of the 1990 Convention Implementing the Schengen Agreement (Schengen
Implementing Convention), 30 ILM (1991), 68, the central authority can be bypassed and requests
for assistance made directly between judicial authorities.
8
See, eg,
R v Secretary of State for the Home Department ex p (1) Mohammed Sani Abacha (2) Abubakar
Baguda & Federal Republic of Nigeria
[2001] EWHC 787.
9
In
Re Request from L Kasper-Ansermet
132 FRD 622 (1990), US Dist, the US District Court was called
upon to consider the validity of a request from the Swiss authorities who sought assistance in taking
testimony from two suspects in order to ‘pronounce indictment’ on behalf of the Swiss magistrate.
The suspects objected on the ground that the Swiss proceedings would not conform with principles
of due process because of the possibility of trial
in absentia,
and the Swiss provision which allowed
silence under questioning to be inferred as guilt was contrary to their rights under US law. Adopting
a purposive approach to the Swiss request, the court found that the treaty permitted the use of a
civil subpoena to compel the suspects
’
presence in court. The court adhered to the rule of non-
enquiry in respect of the trial
in absentia
and considered that the argument based on inferences
drawn from silence was, at the moment, hypothetical. However, compelling suspects to appear
before the court in order to ‘pronounce indictment’ amounted to a Swiss judicial function which
exceeded the ambit of the treaty.
10
See, eg, UN Model Treaty, Art 7; USA-Switzerland Treaty, Art 5; UK-USA Treaty, Art 7; Mexico-USA
Treaty, Art 6.
11
See, eg,
USA v Johnpoll,
739 F 2d 702 (1984). US prosecuting authorities had used evidence obtained
under the USA-Switzerland Treaty, in relation to a conspiracy to transport stolen securities, to convict
him of additional customs offences, offences which were not covered under the Treaty.
12
C Gane and M Mackarel, ‘The Admissibility of Evidence Obtained from Abroad into Criminal
Proceedings—The Interpretation of Mutual LegalAssistance Treaties and Use of Evidence Irregularly
Obtained’, 4
Eur J Crime Cr L Cr J
(1996), 98.
13
For further discussion, see
op cit,
Murray and Harris, note 1.
Chapter 9: Mutual Legal Assistance
233
9.2
UN INITIATIVES
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