International congress of byzantine studies belgrade, 22 27 august 2016

Marija Vasiljević
Institute of History, Belgrade, Serbia;
[e-mail]
Models of Martyrial Hagiography in the Post-Byzantine Balkans: 
St. George of Kratovo
St. George was born in the town of Kratovo, in the region of renowned monasteries of local 
hermit saints and the endowments of Serbian rulers and noblemen. He was executed in the Bulgarian 
town Sofia for refusing to convert to Islam in 1515. Soon after his death, a hagiography and sermon 
were written for the new cult.
The hagiography takes the model of the earliest martyr narratives, seemingly adjusted for the 
reading and listening audience by an extensive introduction and ending. In the opening paragraphs, 
where the history of Salvation is to be found, the influence of local religious and cultural traditions 
is notably present. There, the author uses examples of illustrious Christian and Balkan saints, most 

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of all Serbian ruler-saints, in order to create the interpretative framework for the following story. 
The holy despots of Branković family are mentioned, with the reference to their Nemanjić origin, 
as the last leaders of Balkan Christians. The second is martyred prince Lazar, who died fighting 
the Ottomans at the battle of Kosovo. The placing of George on the line with Serbian saints is also 
indicated by manuscripts, in which we find this hagiography and the liturgical texts of the Serbian 
ruler-saints and martyrs, the latter being St. Lazar and Stephen of Dečani. Also, an early diptych 
depicts Lazar and George, thus demonstrating the same idea in fine arts.
Even though the cult was considered as a part of the pantheon of Serbian saints, the hagiography, 
detached from its frame, mirrors Acts of the Martyrs. Just as with any example of the genre, the 
interrogation, trial, torture and death followed by a miracle are carried out in front of a reluctant 
local power-holder, while the hostile people shape the course of events. Since the questioning is at 
the center of the story, at first, it seems like it serves the presentation of the polyphony of the social 
groups in Sofia. Nonetheless, even though it illustrates independent worldviews, they are not equal, 
as they determine the ‘right’ Christian learning opposed to the ‘wrong’ Muslim.
Furthermore, the hagiography reflects the tradition of Asia Minor that shaped the Byzantine 
experience of martyrdom. The resemblance between The Martyrdom of Polycarp and this text 
supports this thesis. Both of the saints were questioned three times, both were burned, to both 
the mob brings death and for both God presented miracles in flames. Additionally, the Scripture’s 
citations are the same, relying on Pauline epistles and the Gospel of Matthew. The mimetic, sacrificial 
and pedagogical aspects come into the forefront of both texts, as well as the undoing of existing 
power structures and building Christian ones.
As in the case of the early martyr accounts, this text is the key site for identity construction. 
It serves a continual establishing of the boundaries among social groups whose identities would 
otherwise remain fluid. This results in depicting simple, binary, distinctiveness between them, that 
is heightened with current victims by the oppressors. Finally, the social memory based on these 
texts, by means of localization and commemoration, had the capacity to fix these identities.
Therefore, this hagiography stands at the cultural crossroads. Although in some aspects it 
continues inherited Serbian tradition, it stands on the bricks of the early Christian and Byzantine 
one. The text, written by using models of early writings, marks, in the eyes of contemporaries, the 
beginning of a new era of persecution.

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