Inter-organizational imitation: Definition and typology

Keywords
: imitation, mimicry, total imitation, partial imitation, creative imitation. 
JEL Classification: 
L20, L21, L22. 
Received on: 
13
th
of March, 2017.
 

Accepted on: 
12
th
of April, 2017.
 
 
Introduction
1
©
Fifteen years after Levitt (1966) recommendations 
to researchers and to practitioners in management 
concerning the necessity to give more attention 
and value to imitation, the literature is still very 
poor on this subject. Levitt (1996) noted imitation 
does not receive the attention it deserve despite it 
importance in the business world. Nevertheless, it 
seems that in the last years researchers took Levitt 
advice into consideration as they give more 
attention to this phenomenon. In order to illustrate 
this new attitude regarding imitation, an 
examination on “Business Source Complete” 
database was realized between 1965 and 2013. It 
appears that the word “imitation” is only quoted 
as a keyword in 304 articles’ title, whereas the 
word ‘innovation’ is quoted 34 792 times. 
DeFillippi et al. (2008) explained this weak 
interest for imitation because of the abundance of 
researchers in business administration.
Researchers associate imitation to other terms and 
in particular to mimicry. One of the most 
mobilized theories to explain mimicry behaviors 
is the “neo institutional”. We consider this theory 
is not enough to distinguish mimicry behaviors 
and imitative ones on competitive markets. In 
addition to the “neo institutional” theory, we 
mobilize the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) 
© Sp. z o.o. Kozmenko Science Publishing, 2017. 
Bilal Bourkha, Professor at Ecole Nationale de Commerce et de 
Gestion- Université Mohammed Premier Oujda-Maroc Laboratoire de 
Recherche en Gestion Appliquée et Intelligence Marketing, France. 
Younes Belfellah, Ph.D. Student at Institut d’Administration des 
Entreprises de Pau- Bayonne- l'Université de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour 
(UPPA), France.
and the mainstream of competitive interactions in 
order to define and clarify the notion of imitation 
between companies in a competitive market.
Research on imitation in management pertains 
strategic organizational decisions as alliance 
decisions, 
merger 
and 
acquisition, 
inter-
nationalization, innovation and new market 
penetration (Table 1).
Except the article of Haunschild (1993), in the 
literature there are no articles on imitation where 
imitation is clearly defined. A dominant part of 
those who worked on imitation link the observed 
similitude between products or the organizational 
practices to isomorphism by mobilizing the “neo 
institutional” theory. This theory was presented 
by Powel and DiMaggio (1983) in the famous 
founding article titled “The iron cage revisited: 
Institutional 
isomorphism 
and 
collective 
rationality in organizational fields” which was 
published in “American Sociological Review”. 
For the “neo-institutionalism”, Mimicry is linked 
to a founding notion “organizational area” 
(DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). In accordance with 
neo-institutional theory, organizations evaluating 
in the same organizational area develop common 
norms and have to achieve progressively similar 
behaviors. Homogenization can be understandable 
with isomorphism concept (DiMaggio & Powelle, 
1983). They suggest organizations evaluating in 
the same organizational area tend to be alike 
because since they develop more and more 
common 
norms, 
they 
have 
to 
achieve 
progressively similar behaviors. This similitude is 
the source on the one hand, of explicit rules or 
laws to assure this mechanism of convergence, 
and the other hand, usual activities implied by 
norms, values, with a cultural expectation or by 
the willingness to look like the others. 

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Accounting and Financial Control, Volume 1, Issue 1, 2017 
24
Table 1. The imitation and organizational of life
Articles 
Phenomena 
Samples 
Contributions 
Haunschild (1993) 
Acquisitions 
327 American firms in 4 
industries 
Companies imitate in order to determine their acquisition politic 
when managers sit on other firms’ boards 
Haveman (1993) 
Decision to enter into new 
markets 
313 American saving and 
operating loans associations 
American loan agents tend to replicate the decisions to enter into 
new markets based on their most performing competitors 
Haunschild et 
al.
(2007) 
New products introduction 
429 new product introduction of 
67 firms in in the US digital 
camera market 
Cameras’ introduction in the US can be widely explained the 
presence of imitation behavior 
Sirmon et al. (2008) 
Decision to invest in R&D 
and in internationalization 
Manufacturer industry (French 
SME) 
The imitative behaviors of companies influence the decision to 
invest in R&D and in internationalization 
Mouricou (2009) 
Programming decision 
31 French musical radios 
Broadcasters’ practices of competitive imitation are part of the 
strategy of French musical radios. These practices result from the 
programmer’s doubts and perception of uncertainty 
Anderson & Semadeni 
(2010) 
Organizational innovation 
50 largest management 
consulting firms 
Organizational innovation is linked to questions such as imitation 
and the market expectations 
Ghalia (2011) 
Development strategy 
French food-processing 
industry 
The imitation is a strategy allowing to meet the expectations of food-
processing markets and to develop this industry 
Ghani (2012) 
Decision to adopt ERP 
Moroccan SME 
The imitation explains the ERP adoption by Moroccan SME 
DiMaggio and Powell (1983) mobilize the term 
“isomorphism” 
to 
describe 
the 
likeness 
(resemblance) 
between 
organizations. 
They 
emphasized the uncertainty can be considered as an 
indicator 
of 
imitation 
behavior 
(“mimicry 
isomorphism”). They have also developed two other 
pressures (coercive and normative), which can be a 
source of isomorphism. However, they cannot be a 
source of imitation since organizations are 
isomorphs; on the one hand, they behave in an 
identical way; one the other hand, they copy 
intentionality an action from competitors. Fligstein 
(1991) explain this phenomenon of mimicry 
isomorphism 
by 
the 
institutional 
context 
(organizations, 
customers, 
suppliers, 
public 
organizations) that creates a pressure upon the 
organizations. These pressures lead to alignment 
and adaptation of organization. If isomorphism is an 
observable result within a population, thus mimicry 
is the processes that lead to this result.
Mimicry or mimicry isomorphism are two concepts 
generally 
used 
for 
all 
situations 
where 
organizational actions are homogenous. Regarding