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Learning styles A set of behaviours and attitudes that influence how students learn and interact with teachers and peers. Learning styles are cognitive, affective, and physiological behaviours that serve as indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment. For example, for David Kolb (1984) learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. In Kolb’s model, learning is based on two continuums, namely: (a) processing continuum, e.g. approach to a task, such as preferring to learn by doing (active experimentation) or watching (reflective observation); (b) perception continuum, e.g. emotional response, such as preferring to learn by thinking (abstract conceptualisation) or feeling (concrete experience). The four combinations of processing and perceiving determine one of the learning styles (or learning preferences) of how individuals prefer to learn. According to the VAK (Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic – movement –, sometimes known as VAKT, Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic, and Tactile) model, learners use these three/four modalities to receive and learn new information, one or two of these being normally dominant. An individual may have several learning styles which can change over time and according to the learning task. There are also more elaborate models.
	Learning time Generally the amount of time during which learners are actively working on tasks and are effectively engaged in learning. There are different approaches to time in education. For example, a distinction can be made between: (a) officially allocated time, which includes school time (i.e. the total amount of time spent in school), classroom time (i.e. the amount of time spent in the classroom), and instructional time (i.e. the portion of classroom time devoted to the teaching and 38 learning of curriculum subjects); (b) engaged time or time-on-task, which refers to the portion of time during which students are paying attention to a learning task and attempting to learn; and (c) academic learning time, which indicates that portion of engaged time that students spend working on tasks at an appropriate level of difficulty for them and experiencing high levels of success (see, for example, Berliner 1990). See also ‘Instructional time’.