Iacobus Leodiensis [Iacobus de Montibus, Iacobus de Oudenaerde]

III. Shi‘a Islam

Shi‘a communities are found in an area stretching from East Africa to India and beyond. Shi‘ism originated in the political and religious faction following ‘Alī, the Prophet Muhammad's son-in-law. Political failure and the death of ‘Alī's son Husayn in the battle of Karbala in Iraq (680) led to fervent worship of saints and martyrs, and the development of specific genres of religious recitation, lamentation and drama.

1. Mourning ceremonies.

(i) Gatherings and processions.

The anniversary of Husayn's death on the 10th of Muharram (Arab. ‘āshūrā: ‘tenth’) is the focus of group lamentation observed over many days (10 or 40). Special religious gatherings are held in homes and religious meeting-places (tekie; imāmbara in South Asia). In Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan, male specialist rowze singers sermonize and chant recitations (rowze) about the martyrs’ lives; these may be interspersed with dirges (nowhe). The most important rowze singers are esteemed as virtuosos, and their material may overlap in structure with local art music repertories. Rowze has application at any time of the year and is used in commemorating the death of family members. Folksongs and children's songs with religious content are sung during Muharram and other occasions, including feast days such as Omar-koshūn (‘The slaying of the Caliph Omar’).

In South Asia, the Muharram assembly (majlis) opens with ornate and expressive invocations (sōz and salām) by specialist performers trained in rāga music. Accompanists support the solo melody with a vocal drone. Marsiya is a narrative style, and simple nowhe laments precede the final mātam hymns during which all the participants stand, beat their breasts and fervently call out. (For transcriptions see India, §VI, 2, ex.19 and ex.20.)

Shi‘a women may attend public mourning ceremonies, sitting separately, but they also commemorate Muharram in closed all-female gatherings at home. In Iraq, ten days of consecutive sessions (qirayyāt al-husayniyya) are led by a specialist reciter (mullāya), declaiming from a book in a highly dramatic way. Her assistants clap in rhythm, and she evokes coordinated cries from members of the audience, who also beat their chests rhythmically. Two girls loosen their hair and perform a mourning dance to a rapid rhythm. In a most impressive style (‘Indian women's style’), the women all stand, beating their chests and repeating the syllable ‘Ha’ or ‘sayn’ with accelerating speed and accented off-beats, sometimes attaining trance states.

Outdoor Muharram processions (daste-gardānī) originated in the streets of Baghdad from the 10th century. They became more elaborate after Shi‘ism became the state religion of Iran in 1502. They are performed in Iraq (centring on Karbala), Iran, Afghanistan (prior to Taliban rule), Pakistan and India (especially in Lucknow). Individual processions are organized by district, rehearsed and directed by a leader. Male performers move in rhythm through the alleys of their quarter, singing antiphonal nowhe songs and beating their breasts (sīnezanī) or striking their bare backs with small bundles of chains (zenjīrzanī). The songs are heavily rhythmic; and the blows on the performer's breast and back fall on the downbeat (see Iran, §III, 2(ii), ex.1).

(ii) Ta‘ziye.

Ta‘ziye is remarkable as the only type of indigenous religious drama in the Islamic world. From at least the 18th century, theatrical plays (ta‘ziye or shabih) depicting the martyrdom of Husayn were staged during Muharram and at other times, especially in Iran. They were first performed at crossroads, marketplaces and town squares, then in special buildings (tekie, tekie husayniye). The heyday of ta‘ziye was the second half of the 19th century: plays performed in Tehran's impressive royal Tekie Dawlat (built in the 1870s next to the palace) involved numerous players, a chorus and military ensemble. In Iran royal patronage was withdrawn under Pahlavi rule, and ta‘ziye was banned for a while. The corpus of ta‘ziye plays is very large, and since the 1979 Revolution there is renewed interest in Iran in this popular art. A related tradition exists in the Shi‘a village of Nabawiya in Lebanon, with an impressive presentation of the martyrdom story, an elegy singer and some choral passages by actors.

Ta‘ziye means ‘consolation’, and, like the rowze and qirayyāt al-husayniyya, its purpose is to evoke remembrance and weeping. In Iran and Iraq certain conventions are used: the ‘bad characters’, Husayn's opponents, wear red and declaim in violent shrieking voices, whereas Husayn and his party wear green and sing their parts (see Iran, §III, 2(iii), ex.2). Drums and wind instruments may be used, with different instrumentation allotted to the opposing forces.

See also Iran, §III, 2(ii) and (iii); Iraq, §III, 1(ii); and India, §VI, 2.

2. Heterodox sects.

(i) Alevi and Bektaşi.

The term Alevi refers to Anatolian heterodox communities worshipping ‘Alī, Husayn and the Shi‘a imams; they are closely related to the Bektaşi Sufi sect. Closed ceremonial gatherings (cem) involve poetry, music and dance. They take place on feast days (including the 10th of Muharram and the Persian New Year representing ‘Alī's birthday), initiation ceremonies and private gatherings (muhabbet).

Highly respected within their own communities, Alevi musicians are among the most gifted singers in Turkey. They have considerably influenced aşik singers such as aşik Veysel. Aşik initiation dreams are modelled on Bektaşi and Alevi initiation rites, and the social criticism within aşik songs revives old Bektaşi musical traditions. The Alevi repertory includes deyiş and nefes (‘breath’) poems of mystical love. The latter are always metric (usually with six or nine beats), structurally resembling the main form of aşik poetry, koşma (see Turkey, §II, 3). Texts are by religious poets of the 14th century to 20th. Other genres are düyaz, addressed to the 12 Shi‘a imams, and mersiye laments for Husayn. Alevi musicians are skilled performers on the long-necked lute (saz or Bağlama) to which religious symbolism is attached. Its body represents ‘Alī: the neck is his sword, and the 12 strings of the large saz symbolize the 12 imams.

In Istanbul, Bektaşi music is influenced by Turkish art music. Their early 20th-century nefes songs resemble makam-style ilahi songs of other Sufi orders in tonality and form, and they are accompanied by instrumental ensembles. Emigrant communities maintain their traditions in Germany (see fig.6; see also Turkey, §VI).

(ii) Ahl-e Haqq.

This secret sect is principally Kurdish, with religious poetry performed to music as a prominent feature of its closed gatherings. The concept of music as the way to the Knowledge of God appears in many legends, and in their name, meaning ‘Followers of divine truth’. As with the Alevi, their long-necked lute has religious symbolism (see Iran, fig.14). It is used to play Kurdish folktunes (dastgāh) analogous to the Alevi makam, but dissimilar to the dastgāh of Persian art music.

3. Zūrkhāne.

In Iran ritual athletic training within the zurkhāne (‘house of strength’) has a religious character. The gymnastic exercises were originally primarily intended to train the breath. Pre-Islamic tradition mingles with the influences of medieval Islamic men's leagues and guilds, military training and Shi‘a piety. Music within the zurkhāne includes recitations of Sufi poems by the morshed (leader) to his own accompaniment on a large clay goblet drum (zarb).

Islamic religious music

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

a: historical sources in arabic

b: general

c: qur'anic recitation

d: the call to prayer

e: festivals and ceremonies

f: sufi music and mysticism

g: sufi dance

h: music of the shī'a

i: heterodox sects

j: recordings

Islamic religious music: Bibliography

and other resources

Islamic religious music: Bibliography

a: historical sources in arabic

K. al-Adfuwi: Kitāb al-imtā‘ bi-ahkām al-samā‘ [Book on applying the rules about listening to music] (MS, Cairo, Dar al Kutub)

A. al Nabulusi: Idāh al-dalālāt fisama al ālāt [Clear exposition of the arguments on listening to musical instruments] (Damascus, 1885)

D.B. Macdonald: ‘Emotional Religion in Islam as affected by Music and Singing, being a Translation of a Book on the Ihyā ‘ulūm ad-dīn of al-Ghazzālī’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1901), 195–252, 705–48; (1902), 1–28

J. Robson, trans.: Tracts on Listening to Music: Being Dhamm al-malāhī by ibn Abī'l Dunyā and Bawāriq al-ilmā‘ by Majd al-Dīn al-Tūsī al-Ghazzālī (London, 1938)

J. Robson: ‘A Maghribi MS: on Listening to Music’, Islamic Culture, xxvi/1 (1952), 113–31 [trans. of Muhammad Ibn Ibrāhīm al-Shalahī: Kitāb al-itmā‘ wa-’ l-intifā‘ fi mas'alat samā‘ al-samā‘]

J.R. Michot, trans.: ‘Musique et danse selon Ibn Taymiyya “Le livre du sama‘ et de la danse (Kitab al-sama‘ wa-l-raqs)” compilé par le shaykh Muhammad al-Manbiji’, Etudes musulmanes, xxxiii (Paris, 1991)

Islamic religious music: Bibliography

b: general

GEWM, i (‘Islam in Liberia’; L. Monts)

E.W. Lane: An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians (London, 1836, 5/1860/R by E.S. Poole 1966)

H.G. Farmer: A History of Arabian Music to the XIIIth Century (London, 1929/R)

G. Pesenti: Canti sacri e profani: danze e ritmi degli arabi, dei somali e dei suaheli (Milan, 1929)

Suphi Ezgi: Nazarî ve amelî Türk musikisi [Theory and practice of Turkish music], iii (Istanbul, c1938)

S.N. Ergun: Türk musikisi antolojisi [Anthology of Turkish music], i (Istanbul, 1942–3)

Türk folklor araştırmaları [Studies on Turkish folklore], i– (Istanbul, 1949–)

H.G. Farmer: ‘The Religious Music of Islam’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1952), 60–65

H.G. Farmer: ‘The Music of Islam’, NOHM, i (1957), 421–77, esp. 438

M.L. Roy Choudhury: ‘Music in Islam’, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal: Letters, xxiii (1957), 43–102

H. Hickmann and Charles-Grégoire, Duc de Mecklembourg: Catalogue d'enregistrements de musique folklorique égyptienne (Strasbourg, 1958, 2/1979)

M. Schneider: ‘Der Zusammenhang von Melodie und Text im Kultgesang nicht-christlicher Religionen’,Musik und Altar, xv (1962–3), 12–21

J. al-Hanafī: Al-Mughannūn al-Baghdādiyūn wa-al-maqām al-‘irāqī [The musicians of Baghdad and the maqām al-‘irāqī] (Baghdad, 1964)

H. al-Wardī: Al-ghinā al-‘irāqī [Different kinds of Iraqi songs] (Baghdad, 1964)

N. Caron and D. Safvate: Iran: les traditions musicales (Paris, 1966)

H.G. Farmer: Islam, Musikgeschichte in Bildern, iii/2 (Leipzig, 1966, 3/1989)

A. Shiloah: ‘L'Islam et la musique’, Encyclopédie des musiques sacrées, ed. J. Porte, i (Paris, 1968), 414–21

Y. Öztuna: Türk musikisi ansiklopedisi [Encyclopedia of Turkish music], 2 vols (Istanbul, 1969–74)

H. Hickmann: ‘Die Musik des arabisch-islamischen Bereichs’, in H. Hickman and W. Stauder: Orientalische Musik (Leiden, 1970), 1–134

K. Reinhard: ‘Grundlagen und Ergebnisse der Erforschung türkischer Musik’, AcM, xliv (1972), 266–80

S.H. Nasr: ‘Islam and Music: the Views of Rūzbahān Baqli, the Patron Saint of Shiraz’,Studies in Comparative Religion, x (1976), 37–45

L.I. al-Farūqī: ‘The Status of Music in Muslim Nations: Evidence from the Arab World’, AsM, xii (1979), 56–84

L.I. al-Farūqī: ‘Music, Musicians and Muslim Law’, AsM, xvii/1 (1985), 3–36

M. Kartomi: ‘Muslim Music in West Sumatran Culture’, World of Music, xxviii/3 (1986), 13–30

J. Pacholczyk: ‘Music and Islam in Indonesia’, World of Music, xxviii/3 (1986), 3–11

J. During: Musique et mystique dans les traditions de l'Iran (Paris, 1989)

C. Poché: ‘De l'homme parfait a l'expressivité musicale: courants esthétiques arabes au XXe siècle’, Cahiers de musiques traditionelles, vii (1994), 59–74

B. Arps: ‘To Propagate Morals Through Popular Music: the Indonesian Qasida Moderen’,Qasida Poetry in Islamic Asia and Africa, i, ed. S. Sperl and C. Shackle (Leiden, 1996), 389–409

T. Levin: The Hundred Thousand Fools of God: Musical Travels in Central Asia (and Queen's, New York) (Bloomington, IN, 1996)

S.H. Nasr: ‘Islam and Music: the Legal and the Spiritual Dimensions’, Enchanting Powers: Music in the World's Religions, ed. L. Sullivan (Cambridge, MA, 1997), 219–35

R.B. Qureshi: ‘Sounding the Word: Music in the Life of Islam’, Enchanting Powers: Music in the World's Religions, ed. L. Sullivan (Cambridge, MA, 1997), 263–98

Islamic religious music: Bibliography

c: qur'anic recitation

G. Bergsträsser and K. Huber: ‘Koranlesung in Kairo’, Der Islam, xx (1932), 1–42; xxi (1933), 110–40

P. Boneschi: ‘La qasīda fi’ t-tağwīd attribuée à Mūsā ibn ‘Ubayd Allāh ibn Hāqān’, Rendiconti della Reale Accademia nazionale dei Lincei, xiv (1938), 51–92

J. Cantineau and L. Barbès: ‘La récitation coranique à Damas et à Alger’, Annales de l'Institut d'études orientales, vi (1942–7), 66–107

M. Schneider: ‘Le verset 94 de la sourate VI du Coran, étudié en une version populaire et en trois nagamât de tradition hispano-musulmane’, AnM, ix (1954), 80–96

M. Talbi: ‘La qirā'a bi-l-alhān’ [Reading of the Qur'an in (secular) melodies], Arabica, v (1958), 183

Si Hamza Boubakeur: ‘Psalmodie coranique’, Encyclopédie des musiques sacrées, ed. J. Porte, i (Paris, 1968), 388–403

D. Baibars: Talhīn al-Qur'ān bain ahl al-fann wa-rijāl-dīn [Qur'anic cantillation as a discussion between musicians and religious authorities] (Cairo, c1970)

K. al Najmī: ‘“Uzamā” al-muqarri īn wa-mustaqbal al-taghannī bi-l-Qur'ān’ [The outstanding readers of the Qur'an and the future of Qur'anic cantillation], Al-Hilāl, lxxviii (1970), 48

L. al-Sa‘īd: Al-Taghannī bi-l-Qur'ān [Koranic cantillation] (Cairo, 1970)

J.M. Pacholczyk: Regulative Principles in the Koran Chant of Shaikh ‘Abdu’l-Bāsit ‘Abdu’s-Samad (diss., UCLA, 1970)

J.M. Pacholczyk: ‘Vibrato as a Function of Modal Practice in the Qur'ān Chant of Shaikh ‘Abdu'l-Bāsit ‘Abdu’s-Samad’, Selected Reports in Ethnomusicology, ii/1 (1974), 33–41

H.H. Touma: ‘Die Koranrezitation: eine Form der religiösen Musik der Araber’,Baessler-Archiv, xxiii (1975), 87–120

L. al-Farūqī: ‘Tartil al-Qur'an al-Karim’, Islamic Perspective: Studies in Honour of Sayyid Abul A‘la Mawdudi, ed. K. Ahmad and Z.I. Ansari (Leicester,1979), 105–19

K. Nelson: ‘Reciter and Listener: Some Factors Shaping the Mujawwad Style of Qur'anic Reciting’,EthM, xxvi (1982), 41–8

K. Nelson: The Art of Reciting the Qur'an(Austin, 1985)

U. Wegner: ‘Transmitting the Divine Revelation: Some Aspects of Textualism and Textual Variability in Qur'anic Recitation’, World of Music, xxviii/3 (1986), 57–76

A. Shiloah: ‘La voix et les techniques vocales chez les Arabes’, Cahiers de musiques traditionelles, iv (1991), 85–101

Islamic religious music: Bibliography

d: the call to prayer

G. Weil: Der Gebetsruf der Mohammedaner (Berlin, 1929)

R.A. Blasdell: ‘The Use of the Drum for Mosque Services’, Moslem World, xxx (1940), 41

B. Mauguin: ‘L'appel à la prière dans l'Islam’, Encyclopédie des musiques sacrées, ed. J. Porte, i (Paris, 1968), 404–8

F. Hoerburger: Volksmusik in Afghanistan, nebst einem Exkurs über Qor'ân-Rezitation und Thora-Kantillation in Kabul (Regensburg, 1969), 95ff, 123

L. al-Sa‘īd: Al-Adhān wa-l-mu'adhdhinūn [Prayer call and the muezzins] (Cairo, 1970)

F. Hoerburger: ‘Gebetsruf und Qor'ān-Rezitation in Kathmandu (Nepal)’, Baessler-Archiv, xxiii (1975), 121

Islamic religious music: Bibliography

e: festivals and ceremonies

T. Canaan: Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine (London, 1927/R)

A. Chottin: ‘Note sur le “Nfîr”’ (trompette du Ramadān)’,Hespéris, vii (1927), 376–80

A. Rifat and others, eds.: Türk musikisi klasiklerinden ilâhîler [Ilâhi hymns from classical Turkish music], i–iii (Istanbul, 1931–3)

A. Chottin: ‘Airs populaires marocains’, Le ménestrel, xciv (1932), 351, 359, 367

F.L. MacCallum, ed.: The Mevlidi Sherif by Süleyman Chelebi (London, 1943)

Aboû Châsma: ‘Origine du “Mawlid” ou fête de la naissance du prophète’,Bulletin des études arabes, v (1945), 147

Suphi Ezgi: Temcit-na‘t-salat-durak [Temcit, na‘t, salat and durak hymns and chants] (Istanbul, 1946)

J. Németh: ‘Die Zeremonie des Mevlud in Vidin’, Acta orientalia Academiae scientiarum hungaricae, i (1950–51), 134

E. Littmann, ed.: Islamisch-arabische Heiligenlieder (Mainz, 1951)

A.R. Sağman: Mevlid nasıl okunur ve mevlidhanlar [How to sing the mevlid, the famous mevlid singers] (Istanbul, 1951)

G.E. von Grunebaum: Muhammadan Festivals (New York, 1951/R, 2/1958)

A. Ateş, ed.: Süleyman Çelebi: Vesîletü'n-necât (mevlid) [Süleyman Çelebi: epic poem on the birth of the prophet] (Ankara, 1954)

J. Jomier and J. Corbon: ‘Le Ramadan, au Caire, en 1956’,Mélanges: Institut dominicain d'études orientales du Caire, iii (1956), 1–74

B.S. Rasheed: Egyptian Folk Songs (New York and Cairo, 1958)

E. Bannerth: ‘Une chanson populaire de pèlerinage’, Mélanges: Institut dominicain d'études orientales du Caire, vi (1959–61), 403

A. Türkmenoğlu: Ilâhi mecmuası [Collection of Ilâhi texts] (Istanbul, 1962)

I. Ilgar: Mevlid (Istanbul, 1965)

H.R. Şenses: Bu günün meşhur huffazı kiramı ve mevlithanları [Famous Qur'an and mevlid singers of today] (Istanbul, 1965)

N. Çağtay: ‘The Tradition of Mavlid Recitations in Islam particularly in Turkey’,Studia islamica, xxviii (1968), 127

A. Chottin: ‘Panégyriques et musiques religieuses populaires dans la religion musulmane’, Encyclopédie des musiques sacrées, ed. J. Porte, i (Paris, 1968), 409–13

N.A. Jairazbhoy: ‘L'Islam en Inde et au Pakistan’, ibid., 454–63

S. Kinney: ‘Drummers in Dagbon: the Role of the Drummer in the Damba Festival’, EthM, xiv (1970), 258–65

A. Mursi: Al-Ughniya al-sha‘biyya [The folksong] (Cairo, 1970), 90ff

A. Simon: Studien zur ägyptischen Volksmusik (Hamburg, 1972)

A.K. Belviranlı: Mûsikî rehberi: dînî mûsikî [Guide to music: religious music] (Istanbul, 1975)

L.I. al-Farūqī: ‘The Mawled’, World of Music, xxviii/3 (1986), 79–87

N. and R. Tapper: ‘The Birth of the Prophet: Ritual and Gender in Turkish Islam’, Man, xxii (1987), 69–92

E. Waugh: The Munshidin of Egypt: Their World and Their Song (Columbia, SC, 1989)

Islamic religious music: Bibliography

f: sufi music and mysticism

D.B. Macdonald: ‘Saints and the Ascetic-Ecstatic Life in Islam’, ‘The Mystery of Man's Body and Mind’, The Religious Attitude and Life in Islam (Chicago, 1909/R), 157–219, 252

A. al-Hujwírí: The Kashf al mahjúb: the Oldest Persian Treatise on Sufism, ed. R.A. Nicholson (London and Leyden, 1911/R, 2/1936/R)

A.N. Tarlan: Divan edebiyatinda tevhidler [Tevhid poems in Turkish art poetry] (Istanbul, 1936)

Sirajul Hag: ‘Samā‘ and Rags of the Darwishes’, Islamic Culture, xviii (1944), 111–30

A. Gölpınarlı: Mevlânâ'dan sonra mevlevîlik [The Mevlevî order after the death of Mevlânâ J. Rūmī] (Istanbul,1953)

V.M. Kocatürk, ed.: Tekke şiiri antolojisi [Anthology of Turkish monastic poetry] (Ankara,1955)

H. Ritter: Das Meer der Seele: Mensch, Welt und Gott in den Geschichten des Farīduddīn ‘Aţţār (Leiden, 1955/R)

H. Hickmann: ‘Un zikr dans le mastaba de Debhen, Guîzah (4ième dynastie)’, JIFMC, ix (1957), 59–62

K.H. Aïssou: ‘Musique et mystique au Maroc’, Encyclopédie des musiques sacrées, ed. J. Porte, i (Paris, 1968), 464–6

N.A. Jairazbhoy: ‘L'Islam en Inde et au Pakistan’, ibid., 454–63

B. Mauguin: ‘Musique de mosquée et musique de confrérie en Turquie’, ibid., 422–40

Ibn al-Qaisarānī: Kitāb al-samā‘ [Book on listening to music], ed. A. al-Wafā' al-Marāghī (Cairo, 1970)

Syed Shah Khusro Hussaini: ‘Bund samā‘ (or Closed Audition)’, Islamic Culture, xliv (1970), 177

A. Simon: ‘Islamische und Afrikanische Elemente in der Musik des Nordsudan am Beispiel des dikr’, HJbMw, i (1975), 249–78

A.L. Troitskaya: ‘Iz proshlogo kalandarov i maddakhov v uzbekistane [From the history of qalandars and maddah singers of Uzbekistan]’, Domusul' manskie verovaniia i obriadi v srednei azii, ed. G.P. Snesarev and V.N. Basilov (Moscow, 1975), 191–223

J. During: ‘Structure du rhythme dans la musique de transe du Baloutchistan’, RdM, lxii (1976), 213–25

D. Safvat: ‘Musique et mystique’, Etudes traditionnelles, no.483 (1984), 42–54, 94–108

R. Burkhardt Qureshi: Sufi Music of India and Pakistan: Sound, Context and Meaning in Qawwali (Cambridge, 1986)

J. During: Musique et extase: l'audition mystique dans la tradition soufie (Paris, 1988)

J. During: Musique et mystique dans les traditions de l'Iran (Paris, 1989)

J. During: ‘L'autre oreille: le pouvoir mystique de la musique au Moyen-Orient’, Cahiers de musiques traditionelles, iii (1990), 57–78

J. During: Baloutchistan: musiques d'extase et de guérison (1992)

J. During: ‘What is Sufi Music?’, The Legacy of Mediaeval Persian Sufism, ed. L. Lewisohn (London, 1992), 277–87

R. Sultanova: ‘Poyutchee slovo uzbekskih obrgadov’ [The singing word of Uzbek incantations], Konjik (1994), 5–105

R. Sultanova: ‘Rituels poétiques et musicaux des femmes de la vallée du Ferghana (Ouzbekistan)’, Musées/Hommes, iv (1994), 58–62

A. Hammarlund, T. Olssen and E. Ozdalga, eds.: Sufism, Music and Society in Turkey and the Middle East (Istanbul, in prep.) [incl. R. Sultanova: ‘Sufi Female Rites in Modern Uzbekistan’]

Islamic religious music: Bibliography

g: sufi dance

Les voyages du Sieur du Loir (Paris, 1654), 149ff

H. Ritter: ‘Der Reigen der “tanzenden Derwisché”’, Zeitschrift für vergleichende Musikwissenschaft, i (1933), 28

A. Rifat and others, eds.: Mevlevî âyînleri [Âyîn compositions of the Mevlevî] (Istanbul, 1934–9)

E. Dermenghem: Le culte des saints dans l'Islam maghrébin (Paris, 1954/R)

F. Meier: ‘Der Derwischtanz: Versuch eines Überblicks’, Asiatische Studien, viii (1954), 107

M. Rezvani: Le théâtre et la danse en Iran (Paris, 1962)

H. Ritter: ‘Die Mevlânafeier in Konya vom 11.–17. Dezember 1960’, Oriens, xv (1962), 249

M. Molé: ‘La danse extatique en Islam’, Les danses sacrées (Paris, 1963), 147–280

H.Z. Ülken: ‘L'amour divin et la danse mystiqué’, Ilâhiyat fakültesi dergisi [Ankara], xiv (1966), 13

H.Z. Ülken: Mevlânâ ve mevlevâ a âyînleri [Mevlânâ J. Rûmî and the dances of the Mevlevî] (Istanbul, 1969)

K. Reinhard: ‘Strukturanalyse einer Hymne des türkischen Komponisten Itrî (1640–1711)’, Musik als Gestalt und Erlebnis: Festschrift Walter Graf, ed. E. Schenk (Vienna, 1970), 158–77

H.P. Seidel: ‘Studien zum Usul ‘Devri Kebir’ in den Peşrev der Mevlevi’, Mitteilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft für Musik des Orients, xi (1972–3), 7–70

S. Heper and Z. Akyığı, eds.: 43 âyîn külliyati [Collection of 43 âyîn compositions] (Konya,1973)

S. Heper, ed.: Mevlevî âyînleri [Âyîn compositions of the Mevlevî] (Konya, 1974)

Islamic religious music: Bibliography

h: music of the shī'a

W. Ivanow: ‘Some Persian Darwish Songs’, Journal and Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, new ser., xxiii (1927), 237–42

H. Massé: Croyances et coutumes persanes suivies de contes et chansons populaires, i (Paris, 1938)

J. Chelhod: ‘Pèlerinage à Kadzimain, lieu saint de l'Islam’, Objets et mondes, iii (1963), 253

M. Schneider: ‘Religiöser Sport im Islam’, Rhythmus, xxxvi (1963), 4

A. Piemontese: ‘L'organizzazione della “Zurxâne” e la “Futuwwa”’, Annali: Istituto universitario orientale di Napoli, new ser., xiv (1964), 453

N. Caron: ‘La musique shiite en Iran’, Encyclopédie des musiques sacrées, ed. J. Porte, i (Paris, 1968), 430–40

M.T. Massoudieh: ‘Die Melodie Masnawī in der persischen Kunstmusik’, Orbis musicae, i (1971–2), 57–66

E. Neubauer: ‘Muharram-Bräuche im heutigen Persien’, Der Islam, xlix (1972), 249

M.T. Massoudieh: ‘Tradition und Wandel in der persischen Musik des 19. Jahrhunderts’, Musikkulturen Asiens, Afrikas und Ozeaniens im 19. Jahrhundert, ed. R. Günther (Regensburg, 1973), 73–94, esp. 76ff

J. Kuckertz and M.T. Massoudieh: Musik in Būsehr (Süd-Iran), ii (Munich and Salzburg, 1976)

P. Chelkowski, ed.: Ta'ziyeh: Ritual and Drama in Iran (New York, 1979)

M. Riggio, ed.: Ta'ziyeh: Ritual and Popular Beliefs in Iran (Hartford, CT, 1988)

G. van den Berg: Minstrel Poetry from the Pamir Mountains: a Study of the Isma‘ilis of Tajik Badakhshan (diss., U. of Leiden, 1997)

Islamic religious music: Bibliography

i: heterodox sects

T. Menzel: ‘Das Bektāsi-Kloster Sejjid-i-Ghâzi’, Mitteilungen des Seminars für orientalische Sprachen, xxviii/2 (1925), 92–125

A. Rifat and others, eds.: Bektaşî nefesleri [Nefes songs of the Bektāşi] (Istanbul, 1933)

E. Borrel: ‘Sur la musique secrète des tribus turques Alévi’, Revue des études islamiques, viii (1934), 241

J.K. Birge: The Bektashi Order of Dervishes (London and Hartford, CT, 1937/R)

S.N. Ergun: Bektaşî şairleri ve nefesleri [Poets of the Bektaşî and their nefes poems], i–ii (Istanbul, 1944, 2/1955) [up to the 19th century]

S.N. Ergun: Bektaşî-Kizulbas – Alevî şairleri ve nefesleri [Poets of the Bektaşî, Kizilbas and Alevî and their nefes poems], iii (Istanbul, 1944, 2/1956) [from the 19th century]

S.N. Ergun, ed.: Hatâyî divanı: şah ismail safevî, edebî hyati ve nefesleri [Collection of nefes poems of Hatâyî] (Istanbul, 1946, 2/1956)

E. Borrel: ‘Les poètes Kızıl Bach et leur musique’, Revue des études islamiques, xv (1947), 157–90

A. Gölpınarlı, ed.: Alevî-Bektaşî nefesleri [Nefes songs of the Alevi and Bektaşî] (Istanbul, 1963)

T. Bois: ‘Une secte ésotérique kurde: les Ahl-e Haqq’, Bibliotheca orientalis, xxiii (1966), 250

B. Mauguin: ‘Musique de mosquée et musique de confrérie en Turquie’, Encyclopédie des musiques sacrées, ed. J. Porte, i (Paris, 1968), 422–40, esp. 426

M. Mokri: ‘La musique sacrée des Kurdes “fidèles de vérité” en Iran’, ibid., 441–53

C.J. Edmonds: ‘The Beliefs and Practices of the Ahl-i Haqq in Iraq’, Iran, vii (1969), 89

I. Markoff: ‘The Role of Expressive Culture in the Demystification of a Sect of Islam: the Case of the Alevis of Turkey’, World of Music, xxviii/3 (1986), 42–54

Islamic religious music: Bibliography

j: recordings

Dikr und Madih: Islamische Gesänge und Zeremonien, rec. 1974, Telefunken 66.28 192-01, 66.28 192-02 (1980) [incl. disc notes]

Syria, Zikr, Islamic Ritual Rifa'iyya Brotherhood of Aleppo, UNESCO/Audivis D 8013 (1989) [incl. disc notes]

Turquie: ceremonie des derviches Kadiri, VDE-GALLO CD 587 (1989) [incl. disc notes]

Baloutchistan: musique d'extase et de guerison, Ocora C580017, C580018 (1992) [incl. disc notes]

Kurdistan: Zikr et chants soufis, Ocora C560071, C560072 (1994) [incl. disc notes]