Iacobus Leodiensis [Iacobus de Montibus, Iacobus de Oudenaerde]

(c) Sārangī and violin.

The Sārangī is traditionally used to accompany vocal music (essentially imitating what the singer has just sung), especially khayāl and thumrī (see §5(iii) above), and to play the time-keeping melody for tablā solos and kathak dance. The sārangī is also used, though less frequently, as a solo instrument. In this case the central repertory may be described as ‘instrumental Khayāl’: ālāp followed by slow then fast compositions. The most famous player of modern times, Ram Narayan, has incorporated elements from the dhrupad vocal tradition and has developed his own individual playing style. He is also the only outstanding player to restrict his performances to solos. Other great exponents of recent times, among them Bundu Khan and Gopal Misra, continued the tradition of accompanying vocal music, in addition to giving solo recitals.

The European violin was introduced into south Indian music in about 1800. Balasvāmi Dīksitar (Muttusvāmi’s youngest brother) and the Thanjavur musician Vadivelu who settled in Trivandrum were its first exponents. By the end of the 19th century it had become the standard accompanying instrument for concerts of Karnatak music, and it is now also widely used as a solo instrument. It is tuned in 4ths and 5ths (or 5ths and 4ths) sounding sa and pa. The original fingering was a two-finger technique modelled on the vīnā, sliding up with the middle finger and down with the index finger. Many aspects of European technique have been adopted and refashioned to the purposes of Karnatak music. No general vibrato is used, but the instrument lends itself admirably to the gamaka of the south Indian style. It is held with the body against the upper chest and the scroll wedged firmly against the ankle, fully stabilized so that the left hand is free to slide along the fingerboard. The violin is now also used as a solo instrument in Hindustani music.

India, Subcontinent of, §III, 6: Theory and practice of classical music., Instrumental traditions.

(ii) Aerophones.

Aerophones have played special and limited roles in South Asian music. The flute (vamśa) is one of only two instruments for which rāgas are listed in the Sangīta-ratnākara; it was also an important instrument in the ancient theatre orchestra. It did not play any role in classical music of modern times until the 20th century, during which time it became a concert instrument for both Karnatak (venu, Tamil pullānkulal) and Hindustani music (basrī, basurī). In Karnatak music flautists play the standard vocal repertory, and the flute is now heard in the cinna melam that accompanies bharata-nātyam. In Hindustani music flautists play in an ‘instrumental khayāl’ style: ālāp, followed by slow khayāl accompanied by thekā on tablā, then fast khayāl with tān.

The south Indian double-reed Nāgasvaram, the sound of which is valued as auspicious, is the leading instrument in the temple periya melam, with the tavil and the drone oboe ottu; it also appears on the concert stage. Part of the repertory of the nāgasvaram is derived from the Karnatak tradition, largely vocal compositions. Additionally a body of instrumental compositions without any text (mallārī) is performed solely on the nāgasvaram. A composition in slow tempo is varied through performance at double, quadruple and octuple tempos. Different tempos may be mixed together, and a composition may be performed in triplet patterns as well.

The Śahnāī is the double-reed instrument of north India. It is linked with the naubat ensemble and is played in many different contexts: on the concert stage, at mausoleums, mosques and in temple compounds. Like the basurī, the śahnāī follows the pattern of khayāl performances when played on the concert platform (see also §(v) below).

India, Subcontinent of, §III, 6: Theory and practice of classical music., Instrumental traditions.

(iii) Membranophones.

The major barrel drums of South Asian classical traditions are the south Indian Mrdangam and tavil and the north Indian pakhāvaj; the tablā is a pair of asymmetrical kettledrums; and the south Indian Kañjīrā is a frame drum (fig.9). The mrdangam, pakhāvaj and tablā are discussed below. The tavil accompanies the nāgasvaram in the periya melam, both within the temple precinct and in processions. The tavil accompaniment is distinctive, often playing short solos during the unmetred ālāpana (perhaps to give a rest to the nāgasvaram players); the drum also accompanies classical song-based metred compositions. The kañjīrā is often used to accompany Karnatak vocal music, along with the mrdangam and ghatam (percussion vessel).

(a) Mrdangam and pakhāvaj.

(b) Tablā.

India, Subcontinent of, §III, 6(iii): Theory and practice of classical music., Instrumental traditions., ii) Membranophones.

(a) Mrdangam and pakhāvaj.

As with the vīnā, the name mrdanga(m) refers to both a northern (also known as pakhāvaj) and southern Indian instrument. Both can be traced back to the mardala, a barrel drum whose technique is discussed in depth in the medieval Sangīta-ratnākara (13th century). The mardala patterns are still very much in evidence in the modern mrdanga(m) traditions.

There were and are two different kinds of drum strokes and patterns: a primordial set of four and a certain number used for filling in between them. The Sangīta-ratnākara gives ta dhi thom tem for the primal set, called śrama-vāhanī (‘carrying the burden’); this is still the basis for the first sequence learnt in both Hindustani and Karnatak mrdangam traditions. It also gives the sequence in repeating pairs, triplets and quadruplets – ta-ta dhi-dhi … ta-ta-ta dhi-dhi-dhi … etc. – as they are still given in the first lessons. The last syllable now is usually nam (another of seven basic mardala strokes in the Sangīta-ratnākara) but may also be jhem or jhom in the Karnatak traditions.

The second class of strokes in the Sangīta-ratnākara is called eka-sara-tākanī (‘single-flowing-tākanī’), exemplified by combinations of taka and dhikata said to amount to eight, which are meant to ‘break’ the sequences of ta dhi thom tem and provide a ‘flow’ of drumming. Many examples of the elaboration of the ta dhi tom nam succession by means of secondary ‘flowing’ formulae combined with repetition and recurrence of the four main strokes are given in the 14th-century Sangītopanisat-sāroddhāra (Sudhākalaśa). Very interesting historically is the association of each variant with a tāla, as though for a thekā of Hindustani music. Although they are mostly not absolutely identical with existing traditional patterns, some of these patterns are very close, and all are playable. The first quoted below is for Ādī tāla: ‘tad dhi thau draim’. Others are ‘tat-taki/tat-ta/dhi-dhik-ki/dhid-dhi’; ‘tat-ta/dhid-dhi/thau-thau/dhi draim’; ‘karagada naragada/tad-dhi-dhik kada-daragada dhid-dhi kat-thau/dhik-kat-thau draim’.

A longer specimen of ta dhi thau draim plus the filler formula daragada, unconnected with a specific tāla, is given in the chapter on instruments, as an instance of combination for the mardala: ‘tak-kada daragada/dhik-kada daragada tā-dhik-kada/dā-dhik-kada/daragada dhid-dhik-kada/tā-tak-kada/daragada tak-kada/dā-dhik-kada/daragada dhik-kada daragada daragada tā dhit thau draim’.

Comparing these patterns with the first lessons in south Indian mrdangam traditions shows the continuity in the principle of combining the main strokes with filler patterns (jāti), e.g. tā–kitataka dhī–kitataka tom–kitataka nam–kitataka/tā tā kita dhī dhī kita tom tom kita nam nam kita. Other and longer formulae of filler syllables are combined with kitataka, such as tarikita, takadina, takadimi, janutaka and so on: tak-kita kitataka takatarikitataka/dhik-kita kitataka takatarikitataka etc. Other single strokes or short groups can take the places of ta dhi tom nam: tak-kum kitataka … talāngutom kitataka … and so on.

South Indian mrdangam. In their early training, modern students of the south Indian mrdangam learn to play different jātis in relation to different tālas. There are no fixed relationships between particular jātis and particular tālas. The player’s rhythmic sense and motor skills are developed through increasingly varied and complex relations between the two: jātis comprising odd numbers of strokes played in tālas comprising even numbers of beats, and vice versa; doubling, halving and trebling the tempos of the jātis while the tāla remains constant; and starting the jātis on different beats of the tāla.

Playing in terms of improvising jatis in relation to a fixed tāla is called konugolu. This is contrasted with the tathākāra approach used when accompanying melody instruments. South Indian mrdangam players do not keep time in the same way as tablā players do (see §(b) below) but supply a rhythmic counterpoint to the repeated pattern of accents provided by the melody instrument or voice, along with rolls and flourishes.

During the kalpana svara passages that follow improvised pallavi (and may follow fixed compositions, called kriti), the melody instrument improvises increasingly long and rhythmically complex sequences, each terminating on the same strong accent of a refrain passage. In kalpana svara the melody instrument usually ‘challenges’ the mrdangam player to repeat immediately the complex rhythmic sequence just played. During such ‘contests’, the mrdangam player may occasionally replicate a melodic sequence by skilful left-hand strokes.

The solo performance recital traditionally occupies anything from 15 minutes to an hour or more towards the end of a concert, following the main rāga of the concert. This is the longest item, comprising rāga, tānam, pallavi improvisation (or, increasingly nowadays, a kriti) and improvised kalpana svara. These last two sections are set to a single tāla of fixed tempo. Immediately after kalpana svara the mrdangam continues alone into the solo recital, improvising with as many different jatis and jati sequences as possible within the framework of the fixed tāla. The player does not mark the strong beats of the tāla with regular drumstrokes; throughout the mrdangam solo the principal performer of the ensemble marks the strong beats with movements of the right hand. In this way the complex and varying relationships between the rhythmic accents of the jati sequences and the strong beats of the tāla are made accessible to the spectators. Towards the end of the solo the rhythmic density increases to herald the approach of the climax, which lasts for a minute or two and in which relationships between rhythm and metre display maximum complexity and variability. The solo concludes with three repeats of a pre-arranged terminal jāti, which concludes precisely on the starting note of the pallavi refrain played once by the whole ensemble to terminate the musical item.

Of the tālas used, Ādī (4+2+2) is the most common. However, other tālas such as Rūpaka (2+4), Triputa (3+2+2), Eka (4), Khanda chāpu (2+3) and Miśra chāpu (3+4) are frequently heard, and many popular compositions are set to these tālas. Occasionally, compositions in Dhruva (4+2+4+4), Mathya (4+2+4), Jhampa (7+1+2) and Ata (5+5+2+2) are found, usually in the context of improvised pallavi. Ādī tāla has three tempos, arrived at by doubling and quadrupling the number of beats in the measure. The other tālas have a single tempo (although this is variable within limits). Rūpaka, Triputa and Khanda chāpu are fast tempo tālas; Eka and Miśra chāpu are medium tempo; and Dhruva, Mathya, Jhampa and Ata are slow. The slow tempo tālas are associated with older compositions. Mrdangam players often experiment with theoretically derived tālas, but these rarely result in public performances.

Pakhāvaj. The vocal and instrumental forms of dhrupad, accompanied by pakhāvaj, are rhythmically organized in tāla. The drum is silent during the ālāp; with the commencement of the vocal or instrumental composition the drum begins to play. The general style of pakhāvaj accompaniment is characterized as ‘simultaneous-variational’ (sāth sangat), which distinguishes it from the alternating variation of the tablā in the newer Indo-Muslim style.

The dhrupad tāla system has been characterized as additive, in that the common metres are made up mostly of sub-bars of different lengths, thus: Cautāl (Cārtāl, Dhrupadtāl), 12 beats (4+4+2+2); Sūltāl, 10 beats (4+2+4); Tīvrātāl, 7 beats (3+2+2); Dhamār, 14 beats (5+2+3+4); Ārā (‘crooked’) Cautāl, 14 beats (2+4+4+4). The tāla itself has the function of a time signature, a conceptual framework between the musicians. The pakhāvaj, unlike the tablā, does not make much use of a base-rhythm pattern in performance, though it does have illustrative patterns. These are sometimes called thapiyā (‘mark, signature’), or thekā (‘support’), following the tablā terminology.

The most important aspect of pakhāvaj (as of the vocal) variations is tempo manipulation, for which the general term is bat (‘division’). In general, these ‘mask’ rather than ‘mark’ the tāla structure, driving at their conclusion towards the main, first beat of the metre (sam) to coincide with the singer. The structure of a typical pakhāvaj dhrupad accompaniment may be discussed principally in terms of tempo (laya): in the first verse (sthāyī) the drum plays tukrā prastār or peśkār variations in base-tempo, usually medium; in the second (antarā) it plays double-tempo prastār and tukrā; in sañcāri it plays triple- and in ābhog, quadruple-tempo variations; in subsequent returns to the sthāyī, more complex tempos develop (five or seven against four, for example). This format applies to solo playing, but more adventurous tempos (three-quarters, one-and-a-quarter etc.) also occur. Sharma talks of 32 tempo patterns in all. The doubling of tempo within a piece is called dupallī (‘two-fold’), and successive doublings tīnpallī, caupallī etc.

Within this are several different types of variational structure organized by tone-colour, repetition and recurrence, and so on. Tukrā (‘piece’) is a short variation from a few beats to two or three cycles in length, usually with varying strokes and rhythms, and with or without a closing tihāī or triple cadential formula. The term paran (for pūran: ‘filler’; though it has also a more general connotation) is usually reserved for longer structures with manipulation of strokes (bol), tempo and timbre. This often takes the form of theme and tihāī, the latter usually a compound one (cakradār: ‘three times three’). An additional and important principle of variation is that of additive extension (prastār), where a particular bol -phrase is taken (ghinanaka is a favourite one for this) and increasingly varied and complex bol are added before it (e.g. dhā-kita ghinanaka, dhumakita ghinanaka, dhā-kita dhumakita ghinanaka ghinanaka, dhā-kita dhumakita takadhuma ghinanaka). A piece that further emphasizes the permutation of bol (as in dhumakita takadhuma above) is called peśkār (this has more in common with the qāidā than the peśkār of the tablā). The relā (‘torrent’) of the pakhāvaj may derive from imitation of the tārparan and jhālā patterns of such string instruments as the bīn and rabāb (which the pakhāvaj used to accompany) and are fast streams of predominantly closed, rolling bol, given in quadruple groupings which are mostly in 12-beat Cautāl and 16-beat Tritāl (the favourite instrumental tālas). The parār is a longer relā (around six cycles in length) with a closing tihāī. Patterns in one tāla may here be fitted into another. The pakhāvaj also plays with the kathak dance, where in addition to the rhythmic procedures sketched above, its bol can include lexical words or syllables; this occurs also in religious formulae (stuti), where the bol corresponds prosodically to, and also symbolizes, the words of the text.

India, Subcontinent of, §III, 6(iii): Theory and practice of classical music., Instrumental traditions., ii) Membranophones.